


Class tX K 1 7 5 ■? 
Book_,_/^L S3_ 


Copyright >1? 


COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 

































Minnesota State Capitol 




















ELEMENTARY 

CITIZENSHIP 

FOR 

MINNESOTA SCHOOLS 


BY 

R. B. MacLean 

President of Moorhead Teachers College 
AND 

H. E. Flynn 

Inspector of Teacher Training Departments 
in Minnesota High Schools 





COPYRIGHT, 1923 
WEBB PUBLISHING COMPANY 
ST. PAUL, MINN. 

W-l 

Made in U. S. A. 


I 




v %•. v 



OCT -8 '23 


©C1A759273 

/ K$ ( 


FOREWORD 

This little book is an outgrowth of numerous requests for 
the preparation of a body of civic material which would be 
instantly available for the use of both teachers and pupils in 
realizing the purpose of the course in citizenship adopted two 
years ago by the State Board of Education for the elementary 
schools of Minnesota. 

In the preparation of the book the authors have kept in 
mind the outstanding aim of the course which is the develop¬ 
ment, on the part of all citizens, of co-operation in group life, 
beginning with the family and ultimately extending through 
state and nation. The materials of the book, therefore, have 
been organized around the needs of childhood. There is 
certain basic civic knowledge which all children should have 
if they are to take part intelligently in the affairs of the groups 
of their community. The chapters of the book deal with the 
important problems and institutions of modern life. These 
are treated in connection with the affairs and problems with 
which children are familiar and in a manner which it is 
hoped will prepare them for the successful performance of 
future as well as of present citizenship. 

The book has been written for pupils and teachers in 
graded and rural schools. It is planned to be used as a text 
in the seventh and eighth grades and as a reference book by 
teachers of the first six grades. 

To help the teacher adapt the materials and arrange the 
topics of the book to meet the needs of the children, and 
to emphasize the necessity of training in as well as teach¬ 
ing of the duties of citizenship, the authors have included 
a manual of instructions and suggestions. 

Neither the list nor the treatment of topics is intended 
to be exhaustive. There is no static body of civic facts. 


FOREWORD 


Various circumstances may require additional materials to 
fit particular needs. If this book helps teachers in their 
work and gives children a better understanding of their 
citizenship, the authors will be satisfied. 

The questions at the end of each chapter are not given 
to test the pupil’s knowledge of the content of the chapter. 
These questions set up certain problems whose solution 
demands a study of the conduct of the civic life of the local 
community and the reading of current events and reference 
material. 


THE AUTHORS 


TABLE OF CONTENTS 

Chapter Page 

Foreword. 7 

I. Courtesy and Right Conduct. 9 

II. Health and Sanitation. 20 

III. Recreation and Enjoyment. 34 

IV. Care of the Unfortunate and Delinquent. 49 

V. Minnesota Public School System. 59 

VI. Security of Life and Protection of Property. 77 

VII. Transportation and Communication. 93 

VIII. Work, Wealth, and Prosperity. Ill 

IX. The Making of an American Citizen. 127 

X. The Machinery of Government. 141 

Appendix: A. Declaration of Independence. 163 

B. Constitution of the United States. 167 

A Manual for Teachers. 181 

Index. 207 

















AMERICA THE BEAUTIFUL 


0 beautiful for spacious skies, 

For amber waves of grain, 

For purple mountain majesties 
Above the fruited plain! 

America! America! 

God shed FIis grace on thee 
And crown thy good with brotherhood, 

From sea to shining sea! 

O beautiful for pilgrim feet, 

Whose stern, impassioned stress 
A thoroughfare for freedom beat 
Across the wilderness! 

America! America! 

God mend thine every flaw, 

Confirm thy soul in self-control. 

Thy liberty in law! 

0 beautiful for heroes proved 
In liberating strife. 

Who more than self their country loved 
And mercy more than life! 

America! America! 

May God thy gold refine. 

Till all success be nobleness, 

And every gain divine! 

0 beautiful for patriot dream 
That sees beyond the years 
Thine alabaster cities gleam 
Undimmed by human tears! 

America! America! 

God shed FI is grace on thee 
And crown thy good with brotherhood, 

From sea to shining sea! 

— Katharine Lee Bates 


By permission of Katharine Lee Bates and Thomas Y. Crowell Co. 
























CHAPTER I 


COURTESY AND RIGHT CONDUCT 

I lay on the grass and built castles in a bright pile of 
clouds, until I fell asleep. 

—Washington Irving in Sketch Book. 

Castles in Spain. Many years ago, a soldier at the head 
of a great army of knights crossed the Pyrenees mountains 
and won a victory. For his services the King of Spain 
rewarded him with the hand of his daughter and made him 
ruler over a county. Such a success excited other nobles 
to dream of estates won and castles built in Spain. 

Boys and girls dream of the future and plan what they 
will do when they grow up or leave school. These dreams 
come true, too, if those who dream them will try to make 
them true. Artists have painted great pictures, chiseled fine 
statuary, and erected beautiful cathedrals. The finest art, 
however, is the art of living. To be useful is the first duty 
of the good citizen. When we build “castles in Spain,” 
we always picture a happy situation. In life, happiness 
comes to those who unselfishly make others happy. 

A writer, in reflecting on the dreams of boyhood and the 
possibility of their realization, “if we do what they urge us 
to do,” expresses this thought in verse: 

“Years, years are gone. My life has been writ; 

But where are the dreams of the boy? 

They entered my heart and have molded it— 

Refined it and filled it with joy. 

“Those dreams were the prophets of deeds 
That love and ambition would do, 

Bright lures on the pathway that leads 
From the old to the glorious new.” 


10 


ELEMENTARY CITIZENSHIP 


If dreams are to come true, we must learn courtesy to 
our friends and neighbors. We must, like the knights of 
old, serve others and we must practice the rules of conduct 
which people commonly observe. There are certain polite 
things which a gentleman does habitually. There are acts of 
courtesy and good manners that a lady never forgets. The 
only way a habit of conduct is acquired is by practice. 
First, the rule of conduct must be learned, then it must be 
practiced over and over again. A boy on the playground 
suggests a new game: he tells the other boys the rules of the 
game: then the boys play the game. They become proficient 
in the game by practice—always following the rules. If 
the young citizen would develop habits of courtesy, thought¬ 
fulness and helpfulness, he needs to know the demands of 
social customs and usages and then to train himself diligent¬ 
ly in these habits of good society. In our homes and with 
our friends are the best places to begin. The “Blue Bird” 
tells the story of the lad “Tyltyl” and his li t tie sister “ My tyl.” 
These children lived in the humble cottage of Daddy Tyl 
who was a woodcutter. It was Christmas Eve and the 
children wanted to be happy. Who does not want to be 
happy, especially on Christmas? The children had been 
told that the Blue Bird was happiness. So they went in 
their dreams that night on a long journey searching for the 
Blue Bird. The story tells how happiness was found—how 
the Blue Bird was caught—not in some far off country, but 
right at home, the simple, humble home of Daddy Tyl. 
Courtesy and right conduct should begin at home, your 
home, in your school, and in your own community. 

Washington’s Rules of Civility. George Washington, 
who is known as the “father of his country,” was very much 
an American gentleman. Early in his life, Washington 
began to study and practice the requirements of good breed¬ 
ing and social customs. There is preserved in the Library of 
Congress a copy book which belonged to Washington when 


COURTESY AND RIGHT CONDUCT 


11 


he was a boy. In this copy book, he wrote, at the age of 
thirteen years, one hundred ten rules of conduct. He 
called them “rules of civility and decent behavior in company 
and conversation.” This list would be too long to print in 
full, but here are a few of George Washington’s rules, taken 
from his copy book. 

“Every action done in company ought to be with some sign of 
respect to those that are present. 

“In the presence of others sing not to yourself with a humming 
noise, nor drum with your fingers or feet. 

“Sleep not when others speak, sit not when others stand, speak not 
when you should hold your peace, walk not when others stop. 

“When you sit down, keep your feet firm and even, without putting 
one on the other or crossing them. 

“Keep your nails clean and short, also your hands and teeth clean, 
yet without showing any great concern for them. 

“Reproach none for the infirmities of nature, nor delight to put them 
that have in mind thereof. 

“Show not yourself glad at the misfortune of another though he were 
your enemy. 

“Let your discourse with men of business be short and comprehensive. 

“Use no reproachful language against any one, neither curse nor 
revile. 

“Associate yourself with men of good quality if you esteem your own 
reputation; for it is better to be alone than in bad company. 

“Wear not your clothes, foul, unript or dusty, but see they be brushed 
once every day. 

“Eat not in the streets, nor in the house, out of season. 

“Think before you speak, pronounce not imperfectly nor bring out 
your words too hastily but orderly and distinctly. 

“Undertake not what you can not perform but be careful to keep 
your promise. 

“Speak not evil of the absent; for it is unjust. 

“Make no show of taking great delight in your victuals, feed not with 
greediness; cut not your bread with a knife, lean not on the table 
neither find fault with what you eat. 

“If others talk at table, be attentive; but talk not with meat in your 
mouth. 

“Labor to keep alive in your breast that little spark of celestial fire 
called conscience.” 


12 


ELEMENTARY CITIZENSHIP 


Washington Irving, in his life of Washington, tells us 
that these “rules for behavior in company and conversation” 
had a great influence on Washington. Through the practice 
of this code he learned self-control, improved in manners 
and developed a strong character. Even early in life George 
Washington had a reputation among his schoolmates for 
honesty and fair dealing. He was often asked to umpire their 
disputes 'and games, and his decisions were never reversed. 

Personal Appearance. A person is known by his ap¬ 
pearance, his behavior, and his conversation. It is, there¬ 
fore, important for a gentleman or a gentlewoman to look 
well. Appearance is indicative of character. There are four 
things that a person who is careful of his personal ap¬ 
pearance considers: 

/. Cleanliness. Every pupil in the public schools should 
learn to keep his body and his clothes clean. Soap 
and water are cheap, but it takes effort and time to use them. 
The skin should be kept clean and healthy by frequent baths, 
and the face and hands clean. The hands should always be 
washed before a meal. Finger nails should be kept clean 
and trimmed. Good teeth are the result of constant care. 
The teeth should be cleaned each morning and before going 
to bed. A brushing of the teeth after a meal removes food 
particles and prevents decay. 

2. Neatness. The habits of neatness and order in regard 
to personal appearance and belongings may be acquired by any 
boy or girl who makes up his or her mind to be neat and 
orderly. Neatness requires that the hair be combed, the 
clothes in order and properly brushed, and the shoes polished. 
It is not necessary nor desirable that expensive clothes be 
worn but the garments must be in order. Girls may learn 
how to mend and press their dresses, darn their stockings, 
and care for their clothes. Boys can brush their suits, black 
their shoes, and sew on buttons. Some boys, when mother is 
busy, can even patch and darn. 


COURTESY AND RIGHT CONDUCT 


13 


3. Simplicity in Dress. We live in a democracy. Good 
comradeship in school and society forbids any attempt to 
dress for show. Affectation carries with it a suggestion of 
insincerity. It is always in good taste to dress with sim¬ 
plicity. Simple lines and simple styles are more effective 
than elaborate designs. 

4. Suitability in Dress . The farmer in the field, the me¬ 
chanic in the shop, the clerk in the bank, the teacher in 
the classroom, all dress for their work. A boy or girl should 
strive to dress in a manner appropriate to the occasion. 
One will, therefore, dress differently for school, for church, 
for a toboggan party or for a picnic in the woods. The girl 
who is helping her mother with the work on Saturday morn¬ 
ing will not wear her school dress; neither will the boy appear 
in the classroom dressed in the garb of the athletic field. 
The dress should always be in keeping with the occasion, 
the weather, and the season. With a little thought and 
observation one learns to dress in a suitable manner. 

Conduct in the Home. Character is revealed by the way 
in which boys and girls respect and honor their fathers and 
mothers in the home. The home belongs to the children as 
well as to the parents. Courtesy and co-operation will do 
much to make the family life pleasant. Children should be 
considerate not only of father and mother but also of the 
guests who come into the home. Here are some specific acts 
of courtesy and helpfulness that children may do. What do 
you think of them? Do you practice them in your home? 

1. Express some sentiment of greeting or farewell to 
members of your family, when you get up in the morning, 
when you go to bed at night, and when you leave the house 
for school or play or work. A cheery “Good Morning” will 
help to start the day right. “Good Night” and “Good-by” 
will show that you are thoughtful and considerate. 

2. Do not hesitate to say “Please,” “Thank You,” and 
“Pardon Me.” 


14 


ELEMENTARY CITIZENSHIP 


3. Always be polite to callers and guests in your home. 

4. Do not interrupt nor contradict your elders. 

5. Try to do some helpful things every day for members 
of your family. Cultivate always the spirit of the gentleman 
or the gentlewoman. 

Conduct at Table. There is a sociability about eating 
that promotes good fellowship. In order that we may not 
be awkward or embarrassed at a party or at the home of a 
friend, we need to be careful of our manners at the table in 
our own homes. The following suggestions are given. 

1. Be prompt to respond to the call for the meal. 

2. Sit erect, being careful not to sit too near nor too far 
from the table. Under no circumstances lean on the table. 

3. The napkin may be spread in the lap, when you first 
sit down. 

4. Do not reach for the food, but wait for it to be passed 
or ask politely to have it passed. 

5. Hold your knife lightly in the right hand. Use it for 
cutting but not to convey food to the mouth. 

6. To hold meat or other food for cutting, use the fork 
held in the left hand. To carry food to the mouth hold the 
fork in the right hand between thumb and forefinger. In 
doing so have the points' of the tines turn up, not down. 
Use the fork when eating vegetables and salads. 

7. The spoon is used for stirring tea or coffee and in 
eating cereals and certain desserts. Do not leave the spoon 
in the cup, but place it in the saucer, beside the cup, when the 
sugar is dissolved. 

8. When your plate is passed for a second helping, place 
your knife and fork on the plate at one side. 

9. Eat slowly. Do not take too large bites and make 
as little noise as possible in chewing. 

10. At home the napkin should be folded and placed in 
a ring. At a hotel it should be left loose. At a private 
home, where you are a guest, partly fold the napkin. 


COURTESY AND RIGHT CONDUCT 


15 


Conduct at School. The school is maintained for the 
pupils. Children can do much to make the school a busy, 
happy place. You should be thoughtful of the wishes of the 
teacher and the comfort and welfare of your mates. 

1. Do not forget to greet your teacher and your class¬ 

mates in the morning. Address the teacher by name as 
'Miss-. Do not say “Teacher.” 

2. Be quiet and orderly in the halls and corridors. 
Do not rush aimlessly about or make unnecessary noise. 

3. Be neat in caring for your own property. Help to 
protect and conserve the property of the school. You can do 
much to make the school building and its grounds clean and 
attractive. To use public property carefully is a civic virtue. 

4. Boys should remove their hats on entering a school 
building. 

5. When you recite, stand erect, with your hands at 
your sides; speak distinctly and thoughtfully. 

6. Be considerat e of strange pupils who enter your school, 
especially if they have not been long in our country. 

7. Make the visitor to your school welcome by showing 
courtesy and respect. 

8. Do not help another to cheat and do not accept any 
unfair advantage for yourself. 

9. Strive to be a leader in industry, fair dealing, and 
courtesy. You can thus exert a splendid influence. 

Common Courtesies. It is not possible to make rules 
to apply to every situation and it is not necessary to do so, 
for courtesy is just being kind and considerate. It is usually 
safe to be guided by a kind heart and a right purpose. There 
are certain persons who ought to receive special consideration. 

1. Every boy and man should be courteous to girls and 
women. In acts of courtesy and respect “mothers” are en¬ 
titled to first consideration. The stamp of a gentleman is 
revealed by such simple acts as the lifting of a hat or the 
opening of a door. 



16 


ELEMENTARY CITIZENSHIP 


2. We need to be especially considerate of our elders 
and those who are infirm. 

3. Those who are weak and need protection have a 
special claim upon us. Little children need to be guarded 
against fright, accidents, and exposure to meanness and vice. 

4. Those sick or in trouble need to be remembered. 
Respect for the Flag. Thirteen stripes of red and white, 

forty-eight stars in a field of blue, that is the flag of the 
United States. Every child knows the national flag of our 
country. It is the symbol of liberty and democracy. 



Figure 1. Boy scouts lowering the flag at sunset. 
Scout blowing “To the Color.” 


When we show respect for the flag we honor our country. 
Every worthy act of a citizen helps to bring honor to his 
community and country. There are, however, certain ways 
of showing respect for the flag which should be remembered. 

The school laws of the state require that there shall be 
displayed in every public school, when in session, an appro¬ 
priate United States flag. It is also the duty of the school 
board to provide a flagpole outside the school building for the 
display of the flag on legal holidays and on other occasions. 

These rules refer to the flag. 




COURTESY AND RIGHT CONDUCT 


17 


1. The flag should be displayed from a pole, if possible. 
It should not be hoisted on a flagpole before sunrise and it 
should be lowered before sunset. 

2. When the flag is hung vertically, the blue field 
should be at the right. When hung horizontally, the field 
should be at the left. 

3. When the flag is carried in parade with other flags, 
the American flag should have the place of honor. The 
American flag should either precede other flags or be carried 
on a longer pole. 

4. When the flag is unfurled, hoisted, or passes by, 
one should stand and salute the flag or uncover the head. 

Many schools use this pledge in saluting: “I pledge 
allegiance to my flag and the country for which it stands—- 
one nation indivisible, with liberty and justice for all.” 

Rewards of Courtesy. Good manners lay the founda¬ 
tion for business success. More and more courtesy is recog¬ 
nized as an essential element in business success. Good 
manners are the badge of a gentleman or a lady. Good 
homes and polite society open to the youth who practices the 
principles of kindness and honor. Gracious and helpful acts 
prompted by high ideals develop a nobid character. George 
Washington, soldier and statesman, is enshrined in the 
hearts of the American people, because he was a gentleman. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Teachers and pupils will find these books helpful for reference. 
Badt, Ernestine Louise. Every-day Good Manners for Boys and Girls. 

Laird and Lee, 1922. Written in an interesting and simple way. 
McNaught, Margaret S. Training in Courtesy. Suggestions for 

teaching good manners in elementary schools. Bulletin, 1917 No. 

54, Bureau of Education, Washington Government Printing Office. 

Ten cents per copy. 

McVenn, Gertrude E. Good Manners and Right Conduct, book one. 

D. C. Heath & Co., 1918. This book is intended as a reader. 

Deals with such topics as cleanliness, obedience, helpfulness, kind¬ 
ness, self-control and manners. 


2 


18 


ELEMENTARY CITIZENSHIP 


Manners and Conduct in School and Out, by deans of girls in Chicago 
High Schools. Allyn & Bacon, 1921. Concise and definite. 
Written for both boys and girls. Refers particularly to city life. 
Starrett, Mrs. Helen E. The Charm of Fine Manners. J. B. Lippin- 
cott Co., 1907. Written in the form of letters to a daughter. 
Well written. Ideals fine. 

TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION AND INVESTIGATION 

1. Good manners are the badge of a lady or a gentleman. Can 
you prove that statement? 

2. Make a list of qualities or personal virtues that will describe a 
gentleman; a gentlewoman. In the light of these lists, who is the most 
courteous man you know? the most courteous woman? Do you suppose 
others ever measure you by some such standard? 

3. Make a list of the things the different members of your family do 
for one another. What personal virtues do you develop through helping 
other members of your family? If you were in charge of a home, how 
would you plan to develop good manners and right conduct among the 
members of the family. Suggestion: Consider all members of the 
family and the situations in which courtesies should be extended in the 
home. 

4. Of what value to the individual are such rules of conduct as 
Washington made for his own guidance? Should each individual of 
to-day draw up such rules for his guidance? Defend your answer. 

5. Plan a little drama centering around a family dinner scene in 
which table manners a*e exemplified. What would you like to talk 
about at this meal? If you regard conversation as a factor in good table 
manners, make a list of the topics you think should be discussed at the 
various meals. Suggestions: Perhaps you can study this topic as a 
class exercise. The table may be set with dishes or the class may gather 
around an imaginary table. 

6. Tell what you would do or plan a scene which will illustrate 
courtesy and good manners in each of the following situations: 

(a) A visitor or new scholar comes to your school. What 
knowledge of surroundings or regulations would interest the 
visitor? the scholar? 

(b) A stranger asks for information. What courtesy will be 
extended? 

(c) Courtesies to be extended to a host or hostess. 

(d) A banquet scene with toastmaster and speakers. Chairs 
may be arranged around an imaginary table. Toasts and 
responses should be planned. 


COURTESY AND RIGHT CONDUCT 


19 


(e) A picnic scene illustrating behavior and thoughtfulnesss 
in planning work; caring for grounds and fire; planning recreations. 

(f) Behavior in the sick room. 

(g) Respect for aged persons under various conditions through 
helpful deeds. 

7. Has your community any right to expect you to be: neat? 
courteous? obedient? 

8. Show how cleanliness is a matter of good conduct. 

9. Can you illustrate this saying, “Every right of a citizen carries 
with it an obligation or duty?” 

10. What are some of the laws that make for good manners or for 
right conduct on the part of people? Why are they necessary? 

11. What is the importance of forming right habits when young? 
How is a habit formed? What habits are you now forming? 

12. “Good manners and right conduct come from good habits, 
their worth is above fine gold.” Make a list of the courtesies and good 
manners which you believe should become rules of right conduct for 
the behavior of yourself in each of the following situations: 

In the home Toward women 

On the street Toward parents 

At entertainments Toward elderly persons 

On the playgrounds In personal appearance 


CHAPTER II 


HEALTH AND SANITATION 

Look to your health; and if you have it, 
praise God, and value it next to a good conscience; 
for health is the second blessing that we mortals 
are capable of; a blessing that money can not buy. 

—Isaac Walton. 

Knights of Yesterday and To-day. The knights of King 
Arthur’s Round Table were chosen after a long course of 
training. The prospective knight began as a page, was 
advanced to a squire and, finally, if he proved faithful to 
his trusts, he was dubbed a knight. The knight was selected 
not only for his fine qualities of heart and mind but for his 
physical fitness. He knew the sports and games of that 
day and was skilled in the art of fighting. To keep his body 
strong and vigorous, the knight found it necessary to exercise 
and to regulate his habits of living. To-day the youth who 
aspires to a life of usefulness and happiness must guard him¬ 
self against disease and train himself to the practice of health 
habits. This chapter, then, deals with conditions of living 
and personal habits that promote health. 

When America entered the World War, Congress, which 
is the law-making body of the United States, passed the 
Selective Service Bill. This bill was signed by President 
Woodrow Wilson and became the law of the land. Under 
this Act, the men of the country were required to register 
and, as rapidly as called, to train for military duty. Every 
man who was called was carefully examined to determine his 
physical fitness for the life of a soldier. For the United 
States over three millions of men were examined. Of this 


HEALTH AND SANITATION 


21 


number 70 per cent were accepted as fitted for military duty 
while 30 per cent were disqualified partly or totally. For 
the state of Minnesota eighty-two thousand were examined. 
Of this number 76 per cent were accepted and 24 per cent 
disqualified. These facts mean that, for the United States, 
one man in three was rejected, and that, for the state, one 
man in four was rejected. In the nation’s crisis when men 
were being selected for a great service, it was a matter of 
grave concern to find so large a number disqualified on 
account of disease and physical defects. Medical science can 
do much to improve health conditions, but every citizen 
must do his part in applying its teachings to himself. 

Examinations of school children by physicians and nurses 
show that even the young are handicapped by many defects 
and disorders. School children suffer from deformities, 
tuberculosis, defective teeth, adenoids and diseased tonsils, 
defects of hearing, defects of vision, nervous disorders, and 
various infectious diseases. While much can be done to 
cure disease and correct defects, it is much more logical 
and economical to learn how to control and eliminate disease 
through methods of prevention. Like knights of old, young 
citizens of to-day must practice the laws of hygiene to keep 
physically fit and to safeguard the interests of society. 

Personal Hygiene. The human body may be likened 
to an engine. The machine needs constant care and atten¬ 
tion if it is to run quietly and perform its work effectively. 
In disuse the engine rusts; in constant use its parts become 
brittle and break. Only by alternating the periods of work 
and rest can the best results be obtained. The engine must 
be supplied with fuel and lubricating oil. The waste products 
of combustion need to be removed. The intelligent and 
careful engineer takes pride in his machine and guards it 
from needless injury. The accidental use of the wrong 
fuel or the introduction of sand into the cylinders may work 
havoc with a fine mechanism. 


22 


ELEMENTARY CITIZENSHIP 


The healthy body performs its work easily and with 
enjoyment. If the body is not properly exercised, it rusts: 
if driven beyond the limits of endurance, it breaks. Periods 
of work or play must give place to rest and sleep. Air 
and food are the fuels. Elimination of waste and poison 
is essential. Always the body must be protected against 
disease-producing germs and harmful drugs or foods. 

1. Regular habits in all these matters should be so 
firmly fixed in youth that they become second nature and 
will persist through life. Exercise may be had in either 



Figure 2. Toothbrush drill, teaching children how to care for their teeth and pre¬ 
vent infection. Courtesy St. Paul Dispatch. 


work or play. The essential thing is muscular activity and 
the more muscles involved the better the exercise. It 
should be violent enough to quicken the breath and the 
circulation, but should never be carried to the point of 
extreme fatigue or exhaustion. Rest must always follow 
activity like the swinging of a pendulum. Sound sleep is 
perfect rest and the man or woman, boy or girl who gets 
eight or ten hours of it every day is in small danger of u over¬ 
work,no matter what may be done the rest of the time. 

2. Air is the first essential of life. If air is excluded 
from the body, death takes place in a few minutes, due to 



HEALTH AND SANITATION 


23 


suffocation. Good air should have three characteristics: 
motion, coolness, and moistness. Air in houses, offices, and 
schoolrooms is frequently stagnant, overheated, and very 
dry. Persons working under these conditions are likely to 
become drowsy and ill. The best air is outdoor air. 

Open-air schools are conducted for tubercular children 
even through severe weather. 

3. Food is another essential to health. The ration should 
be balanced between the different kinds of food: fat, protein, 
and carbohydrates. It must also contain vitamines, which 



Figure 3. Illustration of an open-air school for tubercular children. 


are found especially in certain raw foods. Some hard and 
bulky foods are necessary. Hard foods require chewing and 
preserve the teeth. Bulky foods aid digestion and elimina¬ 
tion. Milk is the perfect food. Most persons eat too much 
meat, a food high in protein. Water flushes the body and 
should, therefore, be drunk liberally. Tea and coffee con¬ 
tain a narcotic which is injurious to the health, especially of 
growing children. 

4. Waste elimination should be cared for regularly. 
Examination of teeth and tonsils should be made frequently 
to guard against infection from poison that will thus be 
thrown into the system. 








24 


ELEMENTARY CITIZENSHIP 


5. Constant vigilance is the price that must be paid for 
health. It requires persistence and high ideals. Constant 
cleanliness and care of body and mind must always be main¬ 
tained. 

Farmstead Sanitation. By farmstead sanitation is meant 
common sense application of the principles of cleanliness to 
the method of living on the farm. Observance of hygienic 
principles by a family living on a farm is vital not only to 
that family but also to the neighboring farmers and their 



Figure 4. Modern Health Crusaders displaying their weapons of good health. 

Courtesy Minneapolis Journal. 


families. It is a matter of intense concern to families in the 
cities who drink the milk and eat the butter prepared on 
the farm, that the utmost cleanliness be observed in handling 
these products. It is commonly supposed that the farm is 
an especially healthful place to live. But it has been found 
that, as a result of neglect of simple sanitary measures, the 
health of country dwellers is actually inferior to that of city 
folk. Serious epidemics of communicable diseases occur. 
Typhoid fever is not unknown and tuberculosis is very 
prevalent. Every farmer should carry out in his home sani¬ 
tary measures which will protect himself and family against 





HEALTH AND SANITATION 


25 


disease. Pupils should learn how to prevent diseases and 
improve health. This problem for the country boy or girl is 
full of interest. Here are some sanitation problems in con¬ 
nection with the farm. 

1. The water supply is of special concern. Water is 
needed for family use and for the farm animals. If we keep 
water free from the waste products of the human body and 
of animals, it will be free from disease germs. There are 
two sources of water in the country—underground water 
and surface water. In the first case water comes from a well 
or spring; in the second case from a cistern or lake or pond. 



Figure 5. A model dairy barn. Cows and barn are kept in absolutely sanitary 

condition. 


Usually undergound water is free from pollution. Surface 
water is usually polluted. Assured that the source of the 
water supply is pure, the problem is to keep it free from 
contamination. A well should be so located that contamina¬ 
tion will not flow into it from the barnyard or seep into it 
through the ground. The well should be curbed and covered 
to prevent surface pollution. The well should be located 
200 or 300 feet from the house, stable or outhouse. 

2. The stable, especially of a dairy farmer, must be 
absolutely sanitary. It must be kept clean and the barn¬ 
yard dry. The animals should be given a chance to be dry 
and clean. Special care should be taken of the waste from 






















26 


ELEMENTARY CITIZENSHIP 


the barn. Flies breed in filth and carry disease. They may 
be controlled by eliminating their breeding places. 

3. Cleanliness in the care of the food and food products 
of the farm needs to be practiced. The best methods of 
caring for the milk and butter and other food products 
should be carefully studied and followed. 

4. Sanitation in the home needs careful consideration. 
Windows need to be screened against flies and mosquitoes. 
At some cost, it is possible to install running water, toilets, 
and a sewage disposal system which add much to the con¬ 
venience as well as the health and comfort of the home. 

Community Sanitation. Where people live together and 
work in groups the safeguarding of the health becomes a 
community problem. A school is a community center 
where pupils gather for work and play and where parents 
meet for lectures, entertainments, and social gatherings. 
Some definite standards have been established to safe¬ 
guard the health of school children. 

1. School sites should be well drained to avoid unhealth¬ 
ful conditions. 

2. The light in the rooms should come from one direction. 
The glass area should be one fifth of the floor area. The 
top of the windows should be near the ceiling to throw the 
light across the room. 

3. The heating and ventilating system should be such as 
to heat the building in all kinds of weather to a temperature 
of 68 degrees Fahrenheit. It should furnish a current of 
fresh moist air to all the rooms. There must be not only an 
intake for fresh air but an outlet for the foul air. More 
‘‘colds” come from impure air than from cold. 

4. A supply of pure drinking water is required. This 
supply should be available without the use of the common 
drinking cup. 

5. Sanitary toilet facilities, preferably having running 
water and a sewage disposal system, are imperative. 


HEALTH AND SANITATION 


27 


Villages and cities are communities where people live 
close together. For protection and the promotion of the 
common good municipal governments are established. A 
city is a business corporation. In this corporation the citi¬ 
zens are stock holders; the officials of the city are the directors. 
The corporation is managed in the interest of the citizens. 
One of the important functions of a city government is to 
protect its citizens against disease and to improve the sani- 



Figure 6. Two scouts treating garbage to prevent the breeding of flies. 

Courtesy Minneapolis Journal. 


tary conditions. In a co-operative way the city constructs 
waterworks and a sewage disposal system. The water 
supply for residents of a city is a matter of great concern. 
The city undertakes to secure a supply of pure water and to 
distribute it free from contamination to all parts of the 
city. The sewage of the city is removed from the homes and 
public buildings through sewers. Where there is neglect 
disease makes haste to enter. 

Health is further safeguarded through sanitary regula¬ 
tions which inspectors and police officers enforce. 























28 


ELEMENTARY CITIZENSHIP 


1. There are regulations in regard to foods offered for 
sale in a city. Contagious diseases may be carried by food. 
The innocent purchaser may be made to suffer through the 
carelessness or selfishness of others. To protect the innocent, 
there are strict requirements regarding the conditions under 
which food is prepared for the market and offered for sale. 
Dairies, for example, are carefully watched by inspectors. 
Regulations are made for the care of milk, both on the farm 
where it is produced and on the cars in which it is brought 
to the city. Milk is not allowed to be sold in open cans. 

2. Cities find it necessary to have sanitary regulations 
which provide for cleanliness in streets, alleys, and private 
premises. There is a fight against filth. Garbage collectors 
make regular visits to the homes collecting the waste from 
tables and kitchens. Health officers have authority to 
compel owners to clean up private premises that are un¬ 
sanitary. 

3. The segregation of those suffering from contagious 
diseases is done through quarantine regulations. Through 
these regulations patients with contagious diseases are isolated 
and the public is warned of the danger. Sometimes in¬ 
dividuals think these regulations are hard, but individuals 
must make sacrifices for the welfare of all. 

State Laws and Regulations Relating to Health. The 
State Board of Health is an agent of the state for the study 
of disease and the enforcement of health regulations and laws 
in Minnesota. This board carries on many activities for 
promoting the general health. 

1. The Board of Health for Minnesota keeps a record of 
all births and deaths. These records are valuable in legal 
disputes to determine whether an individual is of “school 
age/’ of “military age,” or of “voting age.” The records 
indicate the cause of death so that statistics are available on 
the number of deaths together with the causes. The records 
of births and deaths are kept at the State Capitol and copies 


HEALTH AND SANITATION 


29 


are made for the clerks of court in the eighty-seven counties 
of the state where they may be found. These are called 
vital statistics. 

2. Registration of nurses is made through the offices of 
the State Board of Health. The laws of Minnesota permit 
the employment of nurses by any city, village, township, or 
county in the state. Such nurses must be employed from the 
list of nurses registered in Minnesota. Just as a teacher 
must have a certificate, so a public nurse paid from public 
funds must be registered. 

3. The study and control of communicable diseases is 
part of the work of the State Board of Health. In this field 
the board co-operates with local authorities in case the 
disease assumes the proportions of an epidemic. Labora- 
tories are maintained, to which doctors may send cultures 
for examination. The spread of disease is prevented by 
diphtheria antitoxin and typhoid vaccine which are prepared 
in these laboratories. 

4. Problems of sanitation are in charge of the State 
Board of Health. Examination is made of sources of public 
water supply and methods of disposal of sewage. 

The Dairy and Food Department is another health agent 
of the state. This department is charged with the enforce¬ 
ment of the dairy and food laws. It aims to prevent fraud 
in the manufacture of foods and drinks. It fosters the 
manufacture and sale of pure, wholesome food products. 
The enforcement of the law which prohibits the sale of 
cigarettes and tobacco to a pupil under eighteen years of age 
rests with this department. 

The Nation’s Interest in Health. The federal govern¬ 
ment is concerned with health conditions that are due to 
travel and commerce between states. A state exercises 
control over food products prepared and sold within its 
borders. The nation must provide regulation for food 
and other products affecting health which are distributed 


30 


ELEMENTARY CITIZENSHIP 


widely over the whole United States. In 1906 Congress 
passed a bill known as the “Pure Food and Drugs Act” 
which applies to interstate commerce. 

The Pure Food and Drugs Act forbids adulteration of 
candies, canned goods, and other foods, and medicines. The 
labels on all food products must plainly and truthfully 
indicate the ingredients. The packing house industry has 
become a large business in the United States. The federal 
government inspects and stamps all meats prepared for 
interstate distribution. Meats must be prepared for the 
markets under sanitary conditions. The American people 
in the past have consumed quantities of “patent medicines.” 
There is danger in taking unknown drugs without the advice 
of a physician. The labels on all “remedies” must show 
plainly the contents of the bottle or package. By this 
means the government is making a determined effort to 
prevent the use of habit-forming drugs such as alcohol, 
opium, and morphine. The habitual users of these drugs 
become weakened in body and in mental and moral character. 

The Red Cross As a Voluntary Organization. The 
American Red Cross is part of a world-wide organization to 
lessen suffering and help humanity. It was organized to 
help in time of famine, pestilence, war, and other calamities. 
Since the World War the American Red Cross has turned its 
efforts to a program which includes better health, better 
living, and better education. There is not a community in 
the country that is notbenefited in some waybythe Red Cross 
service. This service includes (1) instruction in “First Aid” 
in which men and women are taught to act promptly and 
intelligently in an emergency; (2) health demonstrations and 
health classes conducted by Red-Cross workers to teach 
people the principles of public health; (3) instruction in home 
hygiene and the care of the sick; (4) classes in food selection, 
the feeding of undernourished children and the serving of 
hot school lunches. 


HEALTH AND SANITATION 


31 


The Junior Red Cross is organized in schools. It gives 
pupils an opportunity to share in the service program of the 
Red Cross. The Junior Red Cross encourages pupils in 
habits of health and cleanliness and in community service. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Haviland, Mary S. Modern Physiology, Hygiene and Health, 3 
volumes. J. B. Lippincott Company, 1921. 

Primer—The Most Wonderful House in the World. 

Book 1. The Play House. 

Book 2. The Worker’s Tool Chest. 

Hunter, George W. and Whitman, Walter G. Civic Science in the 
Home. American Book Company, 1921. 

Minnesota Farmers’ Institute Annual, No. 34, 1921. Home and Farm 
Conveniences. 

Moore, Harry H. Keeping in Condition. A handbook on training 
for older boys. The Macmillan Company, 1922. 

Tappan, Eva March. When Knights Were Bold. Houghton, Mifflin 
Co., 1911. Illustrated. 

Winslow, Charles. Edward Amery. Healthy Living, book one. How 
children can grow strong for their country’s service with a chapter on 
“physical exercises” by Walter Camp. Charles E. Merrill Com¬ 
pany, 1920. 

TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION AND INVESTIGATION 

1. How do fresh air and deep breathing make a healthy body? 
What regulations with regard to fresh air do you observe? What 
exercises will make you strong and healthy? 

2. What do you consider a well-balanced meal for your breakfast? 
dinner? supper? Do you need much meat? What are given as effects 
of tea and coffee on boys and girls? What effects have you noticed? 
If you were the head of family of children, what foods would you 
provide to keep them well? Tell how each of the following contribute 
to good health: your teeth; eating in a mannerly way. 

3. Familiarize yourself with the laws of Minnesota relative to the 
buying or using of tobacco by minors. 

4. What is your school doing to improve your health? the 
health of the community? Can you give any means by which your 
school might further improve the health of pupils? Suggestions: 
Study the effect upon the health of ventilation, temperature, lighting, 
water supply. Explain the ventilation system of your school. Deter¬ 
mine whether the school is well ventilated. How would you make 


32 


* ELEMENTARY CITIZENSHIP 

improvements, if any are necessary? Explain any plan of health super¬ 
vision in your school. Of what value is health supervision of pupils? 

5 . Your community does many things to protect the health of the 
people. Study the following to determine how well the community is 
looking after: 

(a) Water supply: Source of; relation to disease and epidemics. 
How can citizens be sure that water is pure? 

(b) Sewage disposal: Cost. How is the community safe¬ 
guarded? 

(c) Garbage disposal: Regulations for* responsibility of 
citizens. Who makes the regulations? 

(d) Condition of streets and alleys. Effect upon the health 
of the community of clean streets and alleys. Why is dust a 

menace? 

(e) Regulations for grocery stores, butcher shops, bakeries, 
hotels, restaurants. Why are such regulations needed? Are 
these places in your community in a sanitary condition? Who 
makes and enforces such regulations? 

(f) Protection from flies. Is there a requirement that food be 
screened? Why are flies a menace? Breeding place and life 
history of flies. Which is the better slogan and why, “Swat the » 
Fly” or “Starve the Fly”? How would you organize a campaign 
to exterminate flies? Do you think flies can be totally exter¬ 
minated? What is being done by your community to exter¬ 
minate flies? 

(g) Milk supply: How is the health of a community affected 
by clean milk, clean dairies and healthy cows? What are the 
local and state regulations for safeguarding your milk supply? 
Get copies of the state regulations from the Minnesota Dairy 
and Food Commission, Old Capitol, St. Paul, Minnesota. 
Explain the method of pasteurizing and certifying milk. 
What is the relation of the milk supply to tuberculosis? How 
should milk be cared for after it reaches the home? 

6. Why is it necessary to have regulations by the national govern¬ 
ment, the state government, and the local community to protect your 
food supply? How are you protected from eating diseased meat? 
improperly canned goods? 

7. How many of your absences this and last year were caused by 
illness? What part of the total absence in your school was caused by 
illness? What was the effect of such absence upon you? upon the 
school? upon the cost to the taxpayers? Could any of such illnesses 
have been avoided? Were there any epidemics of sickness in your 


HEALTH AND SANITATION 


33 


district last year? If not, what were the common sicknesses in the 
district? Was there any attempt to trace the source or spread of the 
disease? How were you safeguarded from contagious diseases? What 
part do roller towels and common drinking cups play in spreading 
disease? 

8. What is meant by a quarantine? How does it protect you? 
Is a person who does not keep quarantine a good citizen? What is the 
procedure for quarantining a home? 

9. What is the proper means of disinfection? Who is the local 
health officer in your district? How chosen? What are his powers and 
duties? Why must the community safeguard your health? What are 
your duties with reference to quarantine? Why are health boards 
justified in interfering with individual rights in quarantining homes? 

10. Study the powers and duties of the State Board of Health. 
What is its relation to the local board of health? What has it done in 
Minnesota to protect the health of the people? What has it done for 
you? Do its regulations affect your school? 

11. What is the greatest health need in your district? What is the 
community doing about it? Is it an advantage to a community to 
have a reputation for healthfulness? Prove that it is economical for 
the city to keep you well. Compare and contrast the dangers and ad¬ 
vantages to health of city and country life. 

12. If you had the power, what regulations would you draft for: 

(a) Drinking cups, towels, washing facilities, in school? 

(b) Care and handling of food? of milk? 

(c) Water supply at school? 

(d) Spitting? 

13. What specific things are you as a good citizen doing to prevent 
disease and promote the physical health of others? How do you safe¬ 
guard the health of society through keeping physically fit? What is 
being done in your home to prevent illness of your family and to pro¬ 
mote health? What health chores do you do every day to promote your 
own physical well-being? 

14. If you live in a smaller community, what should be expected of 
each citizen with reference to garbage disposal? neat backyards? clean 
cellars? What is the proper location for the well that supplies water for 
home or school? How may people know that the water in their wells is 
pure? How may it be kept so? 


CHAPTER III 


RECREATION AND ENJOYMENT 

UP THE MINNESOTA 

Up the Minnesota through the mellow June, 

Sky beneath our paddles tesselated blue; 

Cottonwoods were moulting, meadow larks in tune— 

Up the green-roofed river shot our shell canoe. 

Overhead the’blackbird flashed a crimsom feather; 

Down the marshy clearing “Indian paint-brush” grew; 

Iris, gold and azure, half a mile together; 

Colors veered and vanished past our fleet canoe. 

—Arthur Upson 

Work and Play. Work is essential to the welfare of 
mankind. The help of every individual is needed in the 
work of the world. A loyal member of a home, of a com¬ 
munity or of a country does his part in helping along the 
program of these institutions. Play also is essential to 
the well-being of mankind. Play of the right sort, makes the 
body stronger, the faculties keener and the character finer. 
Play which is not wholesome and clean is not true sport. 

The use of machinery on the farms and the installation 
of home conveniences give more leisure time to people. 
Leisure time is used for play and recreation. How to use 
leisure time in a profitable way is a question worth careful 
consideration. Both the country and the cities of the 
great Northwest offer wonderful opportunities for recreation 
and enjoyment. There are many organizations which teach 
us how to play and enjoy the fine things of nature and art. 

The Boy Scouts of America is an organization which 
encourages boys to do things for themselves and others. 
It strives to develop boys who are physically strong, mentally 


RECREATION AND ENJOYMENT 


35 


awake, and morally straight. The local organization con¬ 
sists of troops of not more than thirty-two members, divided 
into patrols of eight boys, each under a patrol leader. Troops 
are under control of Scout Masters. Scoutcraft includes 
first aid, life saving, chivalry, nature study, campcraft, wood¬ 
craft and other handicrafts. Boy Scouts participate in out¬ 
door activities and co-operate with boards of health, police 



Figure 7. Illustrative of out-door activities of boy scouts. 


departments, and the public schools. Membership in the 
organization is for boys over twelve years of age. 

Camp Fire Girls is an organization which teaches girls 
to find beauty and adventure in every-day life. It em¬ 
phasizes seven crafts, (1) home, (2) health, (3) camp, (4) 
hand, (5) nature lore, (6) business, (7) patriotism. The local 
groups are called Camp Fires and are composed of from six 
to twenty girls. Each Camp Fire is in charge of a guardian. 
Membership is open to girls over twelve years of age. 










36 


ELEMENTARY CITIZENSHIP 


Girl Scouts is another organization which aims to teach 
girls how to work and play. The organization stands for 
right habits of mind and body, and for participation in civic 
affairs. Girl Scout troops are under the charge of a captain 
who must be at least twenty-one years old. 

There are in every community, organizations which 
promote outdoor activities and an interest in the fine things 
of life. Some of these organizations may be in connection 



Figure 8. Scene along the North Shore Road. 

with a church; others are school organizations; and still 
others may be for the community. Perhaps you belong to a 
club which is interested in finding out the best ways to play 
and find enjoyment. Such clubs are popular with boys and 
girls as well as with men and women. 

Beauties of Nature. On the highway between St. Paul 
and Hudson, Wisconsin, there stands a giant elm tree. The 
beauty of this tree is known to all motorists who frequent the 
highway and to the farmers of that vicinity. The “Lone 








RECREATION AND ENJOYMENT 37 

Elm” is a well-known landmark. For a time the trunk of 
the tree was covered with advertisements and signs. Friends 
of beauty came to the rescue. The signs were removed and 
new signs torn off as soon as nailed up. In this way the life 
of the tree is protected and its beauty preserved. 

The '‘North Shore Road,” which is a part of state high¬ 
way No. 1, follows the shore of Lake Superior from Duluth 
northeast through Two Harbors, Grand Marais, and on to¬ 
ward the international boundary. This highway crosses 



Figure 9. Scene of Itasca Lake, at the source of the Mississippi. 


many streams which come tumbling down the slope of the 
worn-down mountains of that region. These cascades are 
most picturesque and the views, occasionally caught, of the 
blue waters of Lake Superior are charming. The traveller 
who hikes or loiters along the highway will find signs giving 
the names of the streams and cascades. These beauty spots 
have been marked by the Duluth Automobile Club, the 
Cook County Automobile Club, and other organizations. 

Minnesota was once nearly covered by a glacier. The 
melting ice sheet left great piles of sand and gravel. The 
huge hollows between these heaps of earth are now filled 





38 


ELEMENTARY CITIZENSHIP 


with water, forming beautiful lakes. One of the largest 
piles of gravel and earth left by the glacier is known as Leaf 
Mountain, in Otter Tail county. Inspiration Peak on this 
hill is three hundred feet above the surrounding country. 
From this peak a panoramic view can be had for miles. 
Lake after lake is to be seen. This part of the state is 
known as the Park Region, because it contains so many 
beautiful lakes. There are over one thousand lakes in 



Figure 10. One of Minnesota’s beautiful lakes, at Waconia. 


Otter Tail county and more than ten thousand in the state 
of Minnesota. Their value is almost inestimable. 

Every local community has its beauty spots. School 
children know where the earliest and finest wild flowers 
grow. The beautiful shade trees are known by name. The 
favorite picnic ground is visited by happy parties. All 
these places offer opportunity for wholesome pleasure, and 
they should be appreciated as adding much to the joy of life. 

Parks and Playgrounds. In order that the beauties of 
nature may not be destroyed by the development of farms 
and factories, it has been found necessary to set aside certain 
land for parks and playgounds. Cities and villages generally 






RECREATION AND ENJOYMENT 


39 


have their parks with walks and driveways. The city of 
St. Paul, the capital of the state, has over fifty parks, 
which vary in size from a small triangular bit of ground 
containing one tenth of an acre to Phalen Park with nearly 
five hundred acres. Thirty miles of parkways and boule¬ 
vards connect these parks. Many playgrounds are main¬ 
tained where such outdoor sports as skating, tennis, baseball, 
and horseshoes, are encouraged. 

Minnesota as a state has organized a system of parks. 
These include spots or sections which are interesting on 



Figure 11. Public playgrounds in Como Park, St. Paul. 


account of their natural formations, their rugged beauty or 
their historic associations. Students of geology find the 
state most interesting. They tell us that some of the land 
in Minnesota is the oldest in the world, with worn down 
mountain ranges and extinct volcanoes. Some of the land 
is young, having been deposited by the glacier. 

Some of the state parks may be near your home. These 
are the names of Minnesota’s parks: Itasca, Burntside 
Forest, Pillsbury Forest, Interstate (Dalles of St. Croix), 
Minneopa, Alexander Ramsey, Fort Ridgely, Camp Release, 
Traverse des Sioux, Sibley, Horace Austin, Jay Cooke, 









40 


ELEMENTARY CITIZENSHIP 


Toqua Lakes, Whitewater. Some of these have great natural 
beauty or are preserved for their historic interest. 

Forests. There are yet in Minnesota great areas of orig¬ 
inal forests, which belong to the government. There are 
two National Forests: one near Cass Lake called the Minne¬ 
sota National Forest contains 197,832 acres; the other near 
Ely is called the Superior National Forest and contains 
857,330 acres. The state forests are scattered tracts used 
for parks or for growing timber on land which is unsuitable 



Figure 12. Outdoor kindergarten. Children playing under the direction of a teacher. 


for agricultural purposes. The economic value of timber is 
recognized by all the nations of the world—In the making 
of furniture and the construction of buildings, wood has a 
beauty and usefulness which no other material can supply. 
The forests add much to the beauty of the country and to 
its usefulness for camping and hunting. But a forest offers a 
fire hazard which endangers the lives of inhabitants and tour¬ 
ists. For this reason, both the national and the state govern • 
ments have realized the need of supervising and protecting 
the forests. Each maintains a forestry service, which includes 
(1) a fire-fighting system under rangers and patrolmen, (2) 







RECREATION AND ENJOYMENT 


41 


tree-planting on cut-over land, (3) the encouragement of the 
use of forests by campers and tourists. 

Wild Life of the Northwest. The forests and prairies, 
the lakes and streams of the Northwest offer suitable habitat 
for many species of wild life. The birds are of great economic 
value in destroying large numbers of insects and quantities of 
weed seeds that would be a source of harm to farm crops and 
forest trees. The good work of birds is not sufficiently under¬ 
stood. Of the hundreds of birds to be found in the region, 
only a few are positively harmful and a nuisance. The 
English sparrow is one bird for which no defense can be made. 
The many fine song birds add much to the pleasure of out¬ 
door life and they are friends indeed of the farmer. It is 
easy to encourage birds to nest near the house. The build¬ 
ing of bird-houses is a favorite project in manual-training 
classes. Birds and their nests should be protected from the 
house cat. In case of shortage of the food supply birds may 
be fed. Drinking fountains are appreciated by the birds. 

The game birds are geese, ducks, partridge, prairie 
chicken, pheasant, grouse, woodcock, snipe, plover, doves, 
and quail. The four-footed game includes deer, moose, 
beaver, wolf, badger, raccoon, mink, porcupine, muskrat, 
fox, bear, and otter. 

The lakes and streams abound in game fish, such as bass, 
trout, pike, and muskellunge. Other fish are pickerel, perch, 
sunfish, catfish, crappie, and bullhead. 

Fish and Game Restrictions. The rapid and wanton 
destruction of wild life by hunters, fishers, and trappers has 
prompted state after state in the Union to pass laws protect¬ 
ing fish and game. Minnesota has been one of the leading 
states in this movement. These laws are of interest not 
only to those who fish, hunt, and trap but to the citizen who 
wishes to be informed on this effort in conservation. The 
Minnesota game laws offer protection to wild life in several 
ways. We should all try to observe them. 


42 


ELEMENTARY CITIZENSHIP 


1. Under certain conditions, licenses are required of 
those who would take wild game. A license fee is required. 
Non-residents of the state pay a larger fee than residents. 

2. Closed seasons are prescribed. The length of the 
closed season is determined by the degree of protection 
desired. The year isclosedforhuntingwildducksexceptfrom 
September 16th to December 31st, which is the open season. 
The protection of partridge is greater, as no hunting of these 
birds is allowed except during the open season, October 15th 
to November 20th, in even-numbered years only. There is no 
open season for moose, beaver, otter, or harmless birds. Deer 
may be taken in even-numbered years only, between Novem¬ 
ber 10th and November 20th. Various varieties of fish are 
also protected by definitely prescribed closed seasons. 

3. The size of the bag or string is fixed in the law. There 
are daily limits and season limits. The daily limit of black bass 
and of wall-eyed pike is 10, of wild ducks 30 and of partridge 
5, with season limits of 135 wild ducks and 30 partridges. 
The season limit is one deer. 

4. In the case of fish the size is prescribed. No black 
bass under 9 inches and no pike or pickerel under 14 inches 
may be taken, nor a muskellunge under 30 inches. 

5. The taking of game is recognized as a sport. The laws 
in general forbid the selling of game. 

The United States government has given consideration 
to the protection of birds. In 1910 the United States entered 
into a treaty with Canada by which both countries agreed to 
protect migratory birds. In carrying out the agreement of 
this treaty Congress passed an act which places under the 
protection of the government of the United St ates all migratory 
game and insectivorous birds which in their migrations pass 
through or do not remain the entire year within the borders 
of any state or territory. This act forbids the taking of 
migratory game birds between sunset and sunrise. Insectivor¬ 
ous birds are permanently protected. The insectivorous birds 


RECREATION AND ENJOYMENT 


43 


thus protected are: bobolinks, catbirds, chickadees, cuckoos, 
flickers, fly-catchers, grosbeaks, humming birds, kinglets, 
martins, meadowlarks, nighthawks, nuthatches, orioles, 
robins, shrikes, swallows, swifts, tanagers, titmice, thrushes, 
vireos, warblers, waxwings, whippoorwills, woodpeckers, 
wrens, and other perching birds which feed entirely or chiefly 
on insects. 

Bird and Arbor Day. For many years, it has been the 
custom of the schools to observe Bird and Arbor Day. This 
day is observed each year on a date fixed by the governor 
in a general proclamation. Usually the third Friday in 
April has been fixed for the observance of the day. Governor 
Preus in issuing the proclamation in the spring of 1922 said 
in part: “Trees should be planted upon our school grounds, 
around our homes, along our highways and amongst in¬ 
dustrial centers. But Arbor Day should be made something 
more than merely the occasion for planting a few trees. In 
the schools there should be discussion of the relation of trees 
to our economic and social life. Pupils should be shown 
that trees are important not merely because they furnish 
shelter from the sun and wind, and lumber with which to 
build houses, but emphasis should be placed upon their part 
in providing beautiful surroundings which are so essential to 
our happiness and contentment. 

“When we think of trees, we think of birds. Thetrees 
are the homes of the birds, and the birds protect the trees by 
feeding upon destructive insects. In teaching children the 
value of trees, let us also teach them to appreciate and to 
protect the birds.” 

The spirit of Arbor and Bird Day is a fine spirit to keep 
alive during the entire year. 

Beauties of Art. All the world loves beauty. Persons 
differ as to what is beautiful. The nose rings and anklets of 
the Hindu would scarcely appeal to an American as beauti¬ 
ful; the tom toms of the African would not delight the ear of 


44 


ELEMENTARY CITIZENSHIP 


an Englishman; but each is striving for beauty according to 
his own ideals. Beauty exists in harmonies of sound, of 
color and in form and line. It is customary to speak of these 
beauties as the arts. By listening to beautiful music and 
studying form and color in architecture, paintings and other 
works of art, it is possible to learn to enjoy things that are 
artistic. Most schools give instruction in picture study, 
music, and drawing. This instruction helps pupils to see 
beauties in the things about them. In many cases, skill in 
music or drawing is developed. Such skill is the source of 
much pleasure to the possessor and his friends. 

Schools generally and many communities are interested 
in teaching people to enjoy beautiful things. The Minne¬ 
apolis Institute of Arts illustrates what a city can do to 
encourage art. The Institute building is one of the most 
beautiful in America and stands on an impressive site of 
ten acres. Both the site and building were provided by 
generous citizens. Some very valuable collections of 
paintings, tapestries, furniture, ceramics, textiles, and 
sculpture are owned and displayed by the Institute. The 
opportunity to see these things not only gives pleasure to 
those who appreciate them, but tends to develop apprecia¬ 
tion in others. 

Books and Libraries. Into a book there goes some paper, 
thread, and cloth; a great deal of labor of setting type, run¬ 
ning presses, and assembling the pages; but, more than all 
else, the thought and imagination of the author. It often 
takes a writer months or years to compose a book. To the 
binder a book is a piece of art with its decorative cover and 
well-arranged contents. To the writer, the book is a bit of 
himself—a creation of his own mind and heart. To the 
reader, a book is or desires to be a friend. The reader goes 
to a book to get knowledge or information or pleasure. In 
the book, the reader meets people, interesting folk who 
become real companions. In books, with new-found friends, 


RECREATION AND ENJOYMENT 


45 


the reader may travel to strange lands and places. A good 
book is a real companion, sometimes jolly, often funny, 
frequently serious, but always valuable. And here is a secret. 
Character is revealed by the way one cares for books. 

A collection of books ready to be used is called a library. 
The books of a library should be neatly arranged on shelves. 
It is not necessary that the library be large, but the books 
should be carefully selected, just as friends are chosen. 
Above all, good books should be read. There are many civic 
lessons to be gotten from books. 

In many villages and cities library buildings of distinc¬ 
tive and attractive architectural design have been erected, 
and add much to the beauty of the communities. 

The Library Division of the State Department of Ed¬ 
ucation gives advice on the organization of libraries, super¬ 
vises school libraries, and maintains a free traveling library 
for individuals or communities not having library service. 

Community Planning. Thoughtful planning is required 
to make and keep a community attractive. The appearance 
of a house tells something of the tastes and character of the 
members of the family. Communities reveal the composite 
ideals of their residents. 

Many cities have appointed planning boards to devise 
plans for improvement. Rural communities, too, are study¬ 
ing the problem. Successful planning must take into con¬ 
sideration at least three factors: 

/. Health, Through proper drainage and sanitation the 
health of the people needs to be protected. 

2. Convenience, The arrangement of roads and streets, 
and the location of schoolhouses and other public build¬ 
ings ought to be convenient for those who will use them. 

3. Beauty. This desirable end can be secured through 
general neatness and prohibition of objectionable billboards, 
through plantings of trees, shrubs and flowers, and by provi¬ 
sion for parks and parkways. 


46 


ELEMENTARY CITIZENSHIP 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Book of the Camp Fire Girls. Address Camp Fire Girls, 118 East 28th 
Street, New York. The official guide for the organization of camp 
fire girls. 

Handbook for Boys, revised edition, Boy Scouts of America, Grosset 
and Dunlap, 1921. 

Hubbard, Eleanore. Citizenship Plays, a dramatic reader for upper 
grades. Benj. H. Sanborn & Co., 1922. 

Moseley, Edwin Lincoln. Trees, Stars and Birds. World Book Com¬ 
pany, 1921. 

Willard, Daniel E. The Story of the North Star State. Webb Publish¬ 
ing Company, 1922. Tells in simple language the scientific story 
of the formation of the soil, the rivers and lakes, the forests and mines. 


TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION AND INVESTIGATION 

1. What is meant by the saying that a man must be educated for a 
wise use of leisure? How are you being trained in that respect? 

2. What conditions have led to giving people more leisure to-day 
than ever before? 

3. How much leisure time do you have each day? each week? each 
year? How do you spend it? How much time each day should be 
given to recreation? What is the effect of spending too much time in 
leisure and recreation? 

4. How much leisure time does each member of your family have 
each day? How does each member use this time for recreation or 
amusement? Why is it advisable for a person to have more than one 
form of recreation? 

5. Of what advantage are boys’ and girls’ clubs to pupils? to the 
community? What is the purpose of any such organizations in your 
school or community? 

G. What kinds of recreation are needed in any community? 

Suggestions: Consider the needs of children of different ages, of 
boys and girls, and of adults during both winter and summer seasons. 

7. Who need recreational advantages more, farm or town boys and 
girls? Why? Should there be any difference in the kinds of recrea¬ 
tion? in the kinds of games? 

8. List the opportunities your community offers for amusement 
and recreation. Which of these are wholesome? Which are question¬ 
able? Are there any regulations governing these recreations? Why 
should any such be necessary? 


RECREATION AND ENJOYMENT 


47 


9. When are motion pictures good forms of recreation? When do 
they cease to be recreation for school children? for adults? 

10. What has your community done to provide parks, picnic grounds 
or other recreational advantages for the people? 

11. Make a list of the recreational advantages which your school 
offers. What qualities and habits are developed through play? Which of 
the games that you play are of most value to you? Why? Who is more 
likely to get into trouble, the boy who plays or the boy who loafs? 

12. Are your playgrounds and equipment adequate? Can you or 
your school do anything to improve this situation? What playground 
equipment would you choose for your school? Why? 

13. Locate the state parks of Minnesota. What part of the total 
area of Minnesota is given over to state parks? How are these parks 
supported and kept up? 

14. Locate the national forests. Compare the area of the national 
forests with that of the state parks. Why should there be national 
forests in the State of Minnesota? Study the organization of the fores¬ 
try department and the duties of foresters. Have any steps been taken 
in Minnesota for forestry preservation? 

15. Can you give reasons why the state and the various communities 
regard it as a good investment to expend the people’s money for 
playgrounds and parks? 

16. Why should the state want to conserve its game and fish? 
What determines the closed season for game? For what wild game is 
there no open season? How does the state encourage the destruction of 

, certain wild game? Can minors get hunting or fishing licenses? 

17. What insectivorous birds are there in your community? How 
do birds affect our social and economic life? 

18. How does the library serve your recreational needs? By 
what means can you get library service if you have no library in your 
community? What magazines do you like best? What books have 
you read during the past year? Make a list of ten books you would like 
to have added to your school library. 

19. What is being done in your community to make it more at¬ 
tractive? Does your city have any ordinance with reference to paving? 
tree planting? building? street lighting and cleaning? smoke nuisances? 
Would such regulations make your community more attractive? Are 
there any billboards that make your community unsightly? 

20. Which is the most attractive residence street in your community? 
the most attractive residence? the most attractive public building? 
Why? Where are the most attractive farms? 

21. What is the effect of attractive surroundings upon the people? 


48 


ELEMENTARY CITIZENSHIP 


What can you do to help make your community attractive? If you 
were a member of a planning committee, what suggestions would you 
make for improving the appearance of your community? 

22. Make a list of the beauty spots of your community and describe 
the one you like best. 

23. Why is Minnesota called the Playground of the Middle West? 
Minnesota communities have established tourist camps for the 
convenience of tourists. Why have the people of the state a right to 
demand a sanitary condition of the camps? What is the importance 
of health regulations to the state? to the tourists? 


49 


CHAPTER IV 

CARE OF THE UNFORTUNATE AND DELINQUENT 

There never was any heart truly great and generous 
that was not also tender and compassionate. 

—South 

“The Greatest Mother in the World.” During the 
World War, a poster which was displayed all over the United 
States portrayed the Red Cross Society as a good mother. 
The work of this organiza¬ 
tion was strikingly shown in 
the picture of a nurse and 
a wounded soldier on a 
stretcher. The original pic¬ 
ture was painted by Mr. A. 

E. Foringer, of New York 
City. The title of the pic¬ 
ture was Very forceful and 
suggestive, “the greatest 
mother in the world.” This 
picture symbolized the heart 
of the American people. 

America is not indifferent to 
distress and misery within 
her own borders or through¬ 
out the world. 

In the home it is often 
mother who comes to the help of the one in trouble. A good 
deal of the distress of the world is cured in the home, as it 
should be. But in some cases there is no mother to whom 
to appeal or home to which to turn. In other cases the 

4 



Figure 13. A Red Cross war-time 
poster. Courtesy St. Paul Dispatch. 










50 


ELEMENTARY CITIZENSHIP 


home may be unable or unwilling to help its member in 
trouble. In these cases, help outside the home is needed. 
Often individuals befriend those in need. Much good is 
done in quiet ways by men and women, and boys and girls. 
It does not always take money to play the part of the good 
Samaritan. The good Samaritan was just a neighbor and 
friend. 

It has been found wise to organize societies in which kind 
and thoughtful people can unite to carry on their work of 
neighborliness. Perhaps the reader belongs to such an 
organization. If you inquire, you will find that many of 
the adults of your community are members of voluntary 
societies of this kind. These organizations investigate social 
needs and provide help and relief. 

Workers, Shirkers, and Others. Society is composed of 
individuals who can be divided into classes. There are 
many bases for the classification of people. They can be 
classified in accordance with political belief, nationality, or 
occupation. For our purpose we will classify people on the 
basis of their relation to the work of the world. 

/. Workers. In this class we will put all those who do 
their share in the work of the home and of the community. 
These people are a help to society. 

2. Non-Workers. In this class we will put all those who 
fail to do their part of the work. These people are a drag 
upon society. There are two classes of non-workers, those 
who will not work and those who can not work. There is a 
big difference. One who is able to work and will not is a 
shirker. Frequently the shirker is such on account of a 
wrong attitude toward life and the social group of which he is 
a part. He refuses to co-operate or to conform to rules 
made for the good of all. The shirker wants to share in the 
good things others have provided, but he is unfair and selfish, 
in that he uses what others have provided and gives nothing. 
This shirker is called a delinquent. 


51 


THE UNFORTUNATE AND DELINQUENT 

There are some who can not work, on account of disease 
or mental or physical defects. Or, perhaps, they can work 
in a small way or at special tasks. The individual in this 
class is called a dependent. 

Treatment of Delinquents and Dependents. Society is 
consciously trying to get people out of the dependent and 
delinquent class into the group of independent workers. 
Through a system of isolation and training the delinquent 



Figure 14. Winning team in a “First Aid” Boy Scout contest. 
Courtesy Minneapolis Journal. 


may become a useful citizen. Under proper care and teach¬ 
ing the dependent may become partly or wholly independent. 
A bee colony has this same problem. The hive contains 
workers and drones. When food becomes scarce, the drones 
are killed and dragged out of the hive. Society sometimes 
uses rather drastic measures with delinquents, but the 
policy toward dependents should be sympathetic and help¬ 
ful. The responsibility for remedying delinquency and 
dependency must rest primarily upon the home. It must 
and can best establish right ideals and attitudes. Organized 

















52 


ELEMENTARY CITIZENSHIP 


agencies step in to help in cases where the home is unable to 
handle the situation. Welfare agencies proceed as follows: 

1. Find the cause for delinquency or dependency and 

* 

remove the cause. 

2. Recognize the responsibility of the home and strength¬ 
en the home influences. 

3. Apply the remedy in such a way as to encourage moral 
and economic independence. 

Within recent years, governments have recognized the 
claims of the homeless, the friendless, and the outcasts. 
Boards have been authorized by law to direct this work. 
Money has been provided by public taxation for scientific 
study of the problems and the right forms of relief. Social 
welfare work thus becomes an obligation not only of individ¬ 
uals and voluntary organizations but of governmental 
agencies. In this welfare work Minnesota has been a leader 
among the states of the Union. 

State Institutions for Care of Dependents. Each of the 
following institutions has been designed to meet the needs of 
a special class of unfortunates, and in each the aim is to 
remove the handicap, so far as may be, and return the 
individual to normal life and economic independence. 

State Public School, Owatonna • This is really a temporary 
home for orphaned, ill-treated or neglected children under 
fifteen years of age. They are committed to the institu¬ 
tion by the Probate or Juvenile Courts. The children live 
in groups like big families, each group in a cottage and 
under the care of a matron. School and church advantages 
are provided for them while they remain. As fast as possible 
the children are placed in private homes. 

State Hospital for Indigent, Crippled and Deformed Children, 
Phalen Park, Paul. Minnesota was the first state to treat 
crippled and deformed children at public expense. The 
hospital for crippled children was started largely through 
the efforts of Dr. Arthur J. Gillette, who, as a physician 


THE UNFORTUNATE AND DELINQUENT 


53 


specializing in orthopedics (which is the science of correc¬ 
tion or prevention of deformities in children) realized that 
there were many children needing such care whose parents 
were unable to provide it. Many physicians and surgeons 
have given of their time and professional services for the wel¬ 
fare of the children in this hospital. Many children who 
do not live at the institution are brought there for treatment. 

School for Feeble Minded and Colony for Epileptics, Faribault. 
This school is for residents of the state who can not profit 
by instruction in the public schools. 



Figure 15. Sanitarium for crippled children, at Phalen Park. 


School for the Blind, Faribault. Blind persons, between the 
ages of six and twenty-one years, who are residents of the 
state, may be admitted. 

School for the Deaf, Faribault. This school admits residents 
between eight and twenty-one years of age who are too deaf 
to profit by instruction in the public schools. 

Minnesota Soldiers Home, Minneapolis. This home is located 
near Minnehaha Falls. It is open to soldiers and the wives, 
mothers, and widows of soldiers. The average age of the men 
in the institution was recently reported as seventy-nine years. 

Hospitals and Asylums for the Insane. The state maintains 
six institutions for the insane. Three of them, at St. 
Peter, Rochester, and Fergus Falls, are hospitals where 












54 


ELEMENTARY CITIZENSHIP 


persons are treated for mental disease and where many are 
cured. The others, at Anoka, Hastings, and Willmar, are 
asylums or homes for the incurably insane. All commit¬ 
ments are made first to the hospitals. Each institution has 
a farm where the patients work in the open air. 

State Institutions for Care of Delinquents. In the same 
way, the state seeks to reclaim its delinquent citizens. 
There are several institutions, each designed for a special class, 
where training is given in useful occupations. 

State Training School , Red Wing. Incorrigible boys under 
eighteen years of age, who show a tendency to vagrancy 
or crime, are committed to this institution. The boys are 
divided into groups, or families. Through a system of 
medical attention, hygienic living, and educational training, 
an attempt is made to win the inmates to lives of moral 
rectitude and worthy citizenship. 

Minnesota Home School for Girls, Sau\ Center. Here are 
confined the delinquent girls of the state, eight to eighteen 
years of age, committed by Juvenile and Probate Courts. 
The girls are required to care for their own needs. Through 
a system of earning credits, a girl clothes herself from the 
school store and pays for special service rendered her through 
the family of which she is a member. The whole purpose is 
to teach the value of industry and responsibility to the group. 

State Institutions for the Criminalistic. There are three 
institutions maintained by the state for those convicted of 
crime. To these institutions are sent men over eighteen 
years of age and women over sixteen years of age. These 
are the institutions.: 

1. State Reformatory for Men, St. Cloud. 

2. State Reformatory for Women, Shakopee. 

3. State Prison, Stillwater. 

The younger offenders are committed to the reformatory, 
as it is regarded as desirable to keep them apart from those 
older and probably more hardened in crime. 


THE UNFORTUNATE AND DELINQUENT 55 


Population and Expenditures in State Institutions for Year Ending 
June 30, 1922. & 


Dependents 

Popula¬ 

tion 

Expenditures 

Gross 

Net 

State public school. 

312 

$144,489.76 

$141,378.37 

Hospital for Crippled Chil- 


dren. 

203 

113,926.13 

113,078.14 

School for Feeble-Minded. . 

1,904 

446,061.94 

366,599.89 

School for Blind. 

86 

57,737.32 

54,050.00 

School for Deaf. 

260 

121,400.99 

116,402.45 

Soldiers Home. 

388 

205,222.35 

205,222.35 

St. Peter Hospital. 

1,436 

381,605.43 

335,863.33 

Rochester Hospital. 

1,220 

335,160.26* 

268.817.13 

Fergus Falls Hospital. 

1,577 

366,582.78 

320,944.87 

Anoka Hospital. 

870 

134,333.97 

112,659.54 

Hastings Hospital. 

1,000 

192,399.15 

178,902.36 

Willmar Hospital. 

464 

82,419.76 

70,984.86 

Delinquents 


State Training School. 

325 

164,487.19 

162,530.19 

Home School for Girls. 

350 

160,802.02 

170,728.83 

Criminalistic 


State Reformatory (Men). . 

526 

232,384.78 

189,089.07 

State Reformatory (Women) 

40 

25,467.71 

26,037.19 

State Prison. 

912 

426,651.18 

17,140.49 


The gross cost to the state for maintaining these institutions is 
reduced, through receipts for care of patients paid by relatives, 
through receipts from earnings of inmates, and by sale of products. 


The Giving of Charity. Charity springs from a kind 
heart. True charity blesses him who receives and him who 
gives. When, in 1919, Fergus Falls was partially destroyed 
by a cyclone and sixty-two of its inhabitants were killed, 
the people of Minnesota and the nation contributed money 
to help rebuild the home. Disasters of fire, flood, and cyclone 
leave in their wake destitution and distress. Such needs 
demand prompt relief. Misfortunes and accidents, no less 
disastrous, befall individuals and families. To these calls 
for help individuals and societies are ever ready to respond. 

If none but those in need and actual want would accept 
help, the problem would be comparatively simple. Un¬ 
fortunately, many are willing to accept charity rather than 
work; so that the promiscuous giving of alms frequently 





























56 


ELEMENTARY CITIZENSHIP 


encourages shiftlessness. Charity should not be given with¬ 
out careful investigation of the case. Individuals find it 
difficult to investigate the cases that come to their attention. 
To make the investigation and apply relief, charity organiza¬ 
tions or associated charities are formed. 

In giving charity, it is fundamental that the causes of 
poverty be considered. The most successful sort of charity 
tends to remove the cause for poverty and make the depend¬ 
ent a helping member of society. Citizens who accept 
responsibility for the welfare of the country are constantly 
striving not only to aid the victims but to guard against great 
disasters, to prevent sickness, to lessen accidents, to eliminate 
intemperance, to substitute good habits for bad habits, and to 
change economic conditions which result in unemployment. 

Local Administration of Public Relief for Poverty. The 
legal responsibility for administration of relief for the poor 
rests primarily with town boards of each township, and city 
and village councils. Such boards or councils may grant 
relief by paying board, rent, and furnishing provisions, 
clothing, fuel, medical attention, and by burying the dead. 
But no board or council shall pay cash to a poor person. 

Counties may by vote of the people adopt a county system 
of relief for the poor. In this case the Board of County 
Commissioners may establish and maintain a poorhouse for 
the support of persons chargeable to the county and also a 
poorfarm or workhouse or both. The County Board of 
Commissioners has power to render temporary relief. . 

General Social Welfare Work of State. It has been 
pointed out that the care and treatment of dependency, 
especially that due to mental incapacity and all forms of 
delinquency, require the help of trained experts in medicine, 
psychology, and sociology. For this reason much of the care 
of such unfortunates has been assumed by the state. The 
State Board of Control is charged with the management of 
seventeen state institutions. There are, at present, four 


THE UNFORTUNATE AND DELINQUENT 


57 


members on the State Board of Control, appointed by the 
Governor with the consent of the senate of the state. This 
number is to be reduced to three beginning with the year 1925. 

Under the direction of the State Board of Control, there 
may be established County Child Welfare Boards. More 
than two thirds of the counties of the state have active child 
welfare boards. These boards undertake to act as probation 
officers to juvenile courts, to carry on campaigns against 
objectionable dance halls, and to protect the rights of child¬ 
hood. Every child has the right to a mother’s care, to 
the influence of a home, to an education for work and 
play, and to a chance to live a happy life. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Faulkner, Georgene. Red Cross Stories for Children, published for 
the American Red Cross by Daughaday and Company, 1917. 
Hyde, Mary Lindall. Girls’ Book of Red Cross. Thomas Y. Crowell 
Company, 1919. Explains work of Red Cross in times of peace 
and war. 

Reports of State Board of Control on Minnesota State Institutions and 
Child Welfare Work. State Capitol, St. Paul, Minnesota. 

TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION AND INVESTIGATION 

1. What is the meaning of the terms delinquent, dependent, 
defective as applied to classes of people? Locate the state institutions 
for the care of each class. 

2. What classes of unfortunates who need help are there in your 
community? 

3. Why have organizations found it necessary to investigate social 
needs before giving help? 

4. What private or volunteer relief organizations has your com¬ 
munity for providing relief for unfortunates? What publicly supported 
organizations are there? What are the powers and duties of the latter? 
Which type of organization cares for the greater number of people? 
To what charitable organizations do members of your family belong? 
In what specific ways can boys and girls minister to the needs of un¬ 
fortunates? 

5. What institutions are there in your county for the relieving of the 
needy? the sick? How are they managed? How supported? Does 
the state help in this matter? If your county maintains a poorhouse or 


58 


ELEMENTARY CITIZENSHIP 


farm, find what classes of people are admitted, how many people are now 
being cared for, and how much this care costs your county. Why is your 
county obligated to provide relief for the poor? medical care of the sick? 

6. Explain why the state is justified in spending the people’s 
money to maintain schools and institutions for the care of delin¬ 
quents; defectives; dependents. What obligations have relatives 
for the care of dependents? 

7. What should be the difference in the treatment of delinquents 
and dependents? Secure reports from the State Board of Control at 
St. Paul concerning the care the state gives these classes. 

8. How are the criminals in the various institutions of Minnesota 
trained to live better lives? Is the plan a good one? Why should 
criminals be accountable to the state rather than to the local com¬ 
munities? 

9. How does the state help the blind to make a living? Make a 
study of the type of education given to the blind? Read the story of 
Helen Keller. 

10. What are the principal causes of poverty? of delinquency? 

11. How much of the responsibility for juvenile delinquency should 
rest upon the home? upon the community? What are some of the 
important virtues that should be taught to children in the home? in 
the community? 

12. How does the community deal with tramps? street beggars? 
Should tramps or beggars be given money? food? shelter? Explain. 
Why are town boards and city councils forbidden to give money to poor 
people? 

13. What is the procedure for committing incorrigible boys or 
delinquent girls to state institutions? How are these people trained to 
be good citizens? What does it cost the state annually for every delin¬ 
quent boy and girl? Compare these items with the amount the state 
contributes yearly for your education. 

14. Some cities in Minnesota make charity a community affair by 
raising a community fund which is spent under the direction of a wel¬ 
fare board. Compare and discuss the advantages of this plan with that 
of aid distributed by individuals to relieve distress. 

15. If you have a child welfare board in your county, secure a report 
of the work it has done during the past year. 

16. If you have a county nurse, by whom is she employed and 
paid? What are her duties? 

17. Do you know of any cases of need or distress in your community 
which should have attention? If so, how can you bring these cases to 
the attention of the right organization? 


CHAPTER V 


MINNESOTA’S PUBLIC SCHOOL SYSTEM 

It was in making education not only common to all, 
but in some sense compulsory on all, that the 
destiny of the free republics of America was 
practically settled. 

—James Russell Lowell 

Organization of Public School System. The constitution 
of the State of Minnesota is the basic law of the common¬ 
wealth. It was adopted by a vote of the people in the fall of 
1857 prior to the admission of the territory into the Union as 
a state in 1858. This constitution consists of fifteen articles. 
One entire article, the eighth, is devoted to education. The 
first section of this article places on the legislature the 
responsibility of establishing “a general and uniform system 
of public schools.” The stability of a republican form of 
government depends on the intelligence of the people. Under 
this constitutional authority the legislature established an 
educational system for the state. With the growth of the 
state in population and wealth, and with changes in the 
conception of education, it has been necessary to modify 
the system and enlarge its scope. We are not primarily 
interested in the history of the development of education in 
Minnesota. Rather, we wish to know the plan and scope 
of the state school system under existing laws. 

The legislature in 1921 passed a comprehensive law which 
classified the schools and defined the basis on which state 
support is to be given. 

Classification and Definitions. There are seven classes of 
schools which the law (chapter 467, General Session Laws 1921) 
defines as follows: 


60 


ELEMENTARY CITIZENSHIP 


1. A graded elementary school shall be a school giving 
instruction in at least the first six years of the elementary 
course and employing at least four teachers, one of whom 
shall be designated as principal. 

2. An ungraded elementary school shall be a school giving 
instruction in the elementary course and employing one or 
more teachers, but not having the rank of a graded elemen¬ 
tary school. 

3. A four-year high school shall be a school giving one or 
more four-year courses beyond the eight-year elementary 
course. It shall be located in a school district which main- 



Figure 16. A modern rural school building. 


tains a graded elementary school and which shall employ a 
superintendent, a high-school principal, and one or more 
high-school teachers. 

4. A high-school department shall be a school giving 
instruction in at least the first two years beyond the eight- 
year elementary course. It shall be located in a school 
district which maintains a graded elementary school and 
shall employ a principal and one or more high-school teachers. 

5. A junior high school shall be a school having a separate 










MINNESOTA'S PUBLIC SCHOOL SYSTEM 


61 


organization and employing a principal and two or more 
teachers giving instruction in the seventh, eighth, and ninth 
years of the twelve-year public school course. It shall be 
located in a school district which also maintains a six-year 
elementary course. 

6. A senior high school shall be a school having a separate 
organization and employing a principal and two or more high- 
school teachers giving instruction in the tenth, eleventh, and 
twelfth years of the twelve-year public school course. It 
shall be located in a school district which also maintains a 



graded elementary school of six years and a junior high school 
and which employs a superintendent for the entire system of 
public schools in such school district. 

7. A consolidated school shall be any school located in a 
school district organized by law as a consolidated school 
district. Such consolidated schools shall also be classified 
under one of the six preceding headings of this section. 



































































62 


ELEMENTARY CITIZENSHIP 


State Recognition and Encouragement of Schools. The 

law enumerates the ends which the state shall promote 
through state aid. These aims are stated in the form of 
five principles which are to be considered as fundamental in 
defining the state’s responsibility toward education. These 
principles would apply to any state although few states have 
so clear a statement of aims and purposes written into the 
law. These are the purposes: 

1. To assist in providing equal educational opportunities 
for all the school children of the state. 



Figure 18. Renville Consolidated School, typical of many similar modern schools 

in Minnesota. 


2. To assist in establishing certain generally accepted 
minimum standards for all the public schools of the state. 

3. To assist school districts whose tax levies for main¬ 
tenance are exceptionally high. 

4. To stimulate educational progress by grants of state 
aid for superior efficiency and high standards and for desirable 
educational undertakings not yet generally established. 

5. To provide for the maintenance of teacher training 
departments in high schools. 

If you will study critically each of these principles, it will 
give you the theory of public education in a democracy. 

First, equal educational opportunities for all the children 
of the state mean a fair chance for all. In this declaration 








MINNESOTA’S PUBLIC SCHOOL SYSTEM 


63 


the state proposes the same educational advantages for the 
city boy and his country cousin. If the one has trained 
teachers, the other should have; if the one has the advantages 
of a high school, the other should have. Some provisions of 
the law which bring about equality in opportunity are: 

1. Transportation of pupils in consolidated districts. 

2. Aid to consolidated schools, for the erection of modern 
buildings. 

3. The payment of tuition for non-resident high-school 
pupils. 

4. Help from the state in the purchase of library books. 

Second, the establishment of certain minimum standards 



Figure 19. Becker school transportation bus on highway No. 3. 


is a means of encouraging better schools. Schools that meet 
the standards are rewarded, those below the standard have a 
definite goal toward which to work. Standards have been 
established for each of the seven classes of schools. The 
standards for two classes of schools will be discussed in this 
chapter. 

The ungraded elementary school is the typical rural school, 
usually taught by one teacher. In some cases there may be 
two or three teachers. The course consists of instruction in 
the common branches covering eight grades. The standards 
may be summarized under the following heads. 









64 


ELEMENTARY CITIZENSHIP 


1. Clean and well-drained school grounds with adequate 
space for a playground. 

2. School buildings must be kept in good repair and be 
well lighted. 

3. Lighted and screened toilets must be provided. 

4. An adequate heating and ventilating system must be 
installed. 

5. Pure water for drinking is required with a sanitary 
device for furnishing the water. 

6. Each school shall be equipped with the following: One 



Figure 20. School busses with seating capacity of 60 children each, used to trans¬ 
port children to the Two Harbors schools. 


hundred square feet of good blackboard, one complete and 
six abridged dictionaries, a set of basic readers and two sets 
of supplementary readers, a set of nine maps, a suspension 
globe not less than twelve inches in diameter, seats and desks 
of different sizes, and seat-work material for primary classes. 

7. A library of books, marked and classified. 

What reward does the state give to schools which meet 
these minimum standards for ungraded elementary schools? 
For each ungraded elementary school with a school year of 
at least eight months, the state pays a school district one 
hundred fifty ($150) dollars for each first-grade teacher 
employed and one hundred ($100) dollars for each second- 









MINNESOTA'S PUBLIC SCHOOL SYSTEM 


65 


grade teacher employed. For a school year of at least seven 
months the state pays three fourths of the aid provided for a 
school with a school year of eight months. The total aid on 
the teacher basis may not exceed $300 for an ungraded 
elementary school. In this way the state seeks to encourage 
in the rural districts a school year of eight months, teachers 
with first-grade certificates, and well-equipped buildings. 

The graded elementary school offers instruction in the 
eight years of the elementary course. Teachers are required 
to have training equivalent to at least the advanced course of 
a State Teachers’ College. Minimum standards are estab¬ 
lished for schools of this class. 

1. The school must employ at least four teachers with a 
principal in charge. 

2. Records must be kept of pupils’ standings, textbooks 
in use, books in the library, and the course of study arranged 
by years. 

3. The building must be sanitary and modern as to heat 
and ventilation, light, running water, and sewer. 

4. The following equipment is required: a library of not 
less than 300 volumes, maps and globes, a set of method 
readers and at least three sets of supplementary readers for 
each grade, one complete and six abridged dictionaries, single 
seats and desks adjustable or graded in size. 

5. An assessed valuation in the district of not less than 
$125,000. Again, the state recognizes the effort of com¬ 
munities that maintain graded elementary schools, by a 
grant of four hundred ($400) dollars to each school. 

In addition to these two classes of elementary schools, the 
state recognizes and encourages high schools. If you wish to 
study the standards for high schools, you will find them 
defined in the law (chapter 467, Laws 1921). Further in¬ 
formation can be secured through bulletins defining standards 
published by the State Department of Education, State 
Capitol, St. Paul. 

5 


66 


ELEMENTARY CITIZENSHIP 


To assist school districts whose tax levies for maintenance 
are exceptionally high is given as the third purpose of the 
state in its educational program. Some districts have little 
wealth; others are rich. Some districts must levy a very 
high tax rate in order to maintain even a poor school. This 
principle declares that the wealth of the whole state should 
be taxed to help those districts that have heavy burdens. It 
is a method of equalizing the burden of school support. Do 
you not think this is democratic? The state law provides, 
if a twenty-mill tax for school maintenance does not yield 



Figure 21. Children receiving instruction in garden project work. 


forty dollars for each pupil enrolled forty or more days, that 
then the state shall pay the district an amount which with 
the proceeds of the twenty-mill tax will provide forty dollars 
for each pupil. 

The fourth principle calls for the stimulation of new and 
desirable undertakings. Under this head, the state is en¬ 
couraging a number of interesting things. 

1. The teaching of industrial subjects, agriculture, home 
training, commercial training, and industrial training in high 
schools. 

2. The caring for special classes of pupils as deaf, blind, 
defective speech, and crippled. 

















MINNESOTA’S PUBLIC SCHOOL SYSTEM 


67 



Figure 22. A team of girls demonstrating canning at the State Fair. 


3. Evening school work for adults especially those who 
wish to learn the English language and American ways. 

4. Re-education of persons injured in the industries. 

The fifth and last of the state’s purposes in education 

establishes the need for trained teachers. The teacher is an 
agent of the state who performs work of great value 
to society. Young persons who are thinking of what 
they shall do when they leave school, should consider 
teaching. Few professions offer opportunities for useful 
service equal to the profession of teaching. The state pro¬ 
vides and maintains training institutions to prepare young 
people for the work of teaching. There are nearly one hundred 



Figure 23. Club members exhibiting their baby beef at state contest. 

























68 


ELEMENTARY CITIZENSHIP 


training departments maintained in the high schools of the 
state. Graduates of these training departments are certi¬ 
ficated to teach in the rural (ungraded) schools of the state. 
Of the 8,520 teachers in the rural schools, in 1921, 4,256 were 
trained in these departments. 

State Funds for the Support of Education. Perhaps you 
have been wondering where the state got the money to carry 


out its plan. Your study has 



Figure 24. Prize winner in a school corn¬ 
growing contest. 


shown you that it is the pur¬ 
pose to equalize educational 
opportunities, to establish 
standards, to equalize the 
tax burdens, to stimulate 
new and desirable undertak¬ 
ings and to provide teacher 
training departments. This 
program requires the ex¬ 
penditure of money, great 
sums of money. 

It will be necessary to 
refer again to the constitu¬ 
tion of the state. The eighth 
article of this document pro¬ 
vided not only for the estab¬ 
lishment of an educational 
system but constituted two 
permanent school funds for 
the support of public educa¬ 


tion. One of these funds was called a Perpetual Fund. 
Into this fund has been placed the proceeds from the sale 
of all school lands. When the state of Minnesota was 
established, the federal government granted, as school lands, 
sections numbered sixteen and thirty-six in every township of 
public lands in the state. The school lands of the state have 
been sold at fair prices. At the present time but little school 
land remains unsold. Through good business management 







MINNESOTA’S PUBLIC SCHOOL SYSTEM 


69 


this permanent fund has grown until only two states in the 
Union have permanent school funds as large. On July 1, 
1922, the State Auditor, who is bookkeeper for the state, 
reported this fund as $ 33 , 750 , 529 . 38 . 

The other permanent fund established by the constitu¬ 
tion was called Swamp Lands Fund. The proceeds from the 
sale of swamp lands held by the state have been preserved 
undiminished in afund which on July 1,1922, the State Auditor 
reported had reached the total of $8,223,536.45. One half the 
income of this fund is used for the public schools of the state, 
the other half being used for the state’s charitable institutions. 

With this knowledge of the permanent school funds of 
the state, we are ready to explain the source of the money 
which the state annually distributes for education. 

/. The endowment fund consists of the income from the 
above permanent school funds. 

2. The current school fund consists of the income provided 
from a state one-mill tax. 

3. The special state aid fund consists of sums appropriated 
by the legislature. The endowment and current school 
funds are distributed to school districts whose schools have 
been in session at least seven months, in proportion to 
the number of scholars of school age who attended at least 
forty (40) days during the preceding year. This distribution 
is commonly called the apportionment. During the year 
1921-22, the apportionment amounted to $6.75 for each pupil 
enrolled in the public schools who attended forty or more days 
the previous year. 

The third fund, consisting of legislative appropriations, is 
distributed by the state to encourage better schools and to 
further carry out the five principles which have been discussed 
in this chapter. 

State Direction of Education. The state encourages and 
directs education, but leaves to local districts the direct 
control and management of their schools. The direction of 


70 


ELEMENTARY CITIZENSHIP 


education for the state is vested in a State Board of Educa¬ 
tion composed of five representative citizens of the state. 
The members of the State Board are appointed by the Gov¬ 
ernor with the approval of the senate for a term of five years. 

The State Board of Education is authorized to establish a 
Department of Education. The members of the department 
consist of a Commissioner of Education, a Deputy Commis¬ 
sioner, Inspectors for the different classes of schools, and 
other assistants. 

Local Control and Management. As a pupil you know 
more of the organization and management of the school of 
your home district than that of an} r other school in the state. 
You know that your father pays taxes in the district. Per¬ 
haps some member of your family or a neighbor is a member 
of the school board and as such he is charged directly with 
the management of the school. You have heard the welfare 
of the school discussed at home and in public meetings. You 
have attended the school and have had opportunity to co¬ 
operate with your teachers and classmates to make it a better 
school. On account of your interest in your school, suppose, 
under the teacher’s guidance, you study carefully the plan of 
organization and the problems of your own district. You 
can collect the information from people in the district. 
Some facts may be gotten from the district records which 
the clerk keeps. For some data it may be necessary to 
appeal to a county officer. 

After you have gathered information from many sources 
about your school district and thought about the work and 
needs of your school, you will be interested in reading about 
the state plan for the organization of different kinds of dis¬ 
tricts. You will want to see which plan your district follows. 

There are in Minnesota three types of organization for 
school districts. 

/. The Common School District. No doubt this form is 
called “Common School District” because there are so many 


MINNESOTA'S PUBLIC SCHOOL SYSTEM 


71 


of them. The school board in the common district consists 
of three members, a chairman, a treasurer, and a clerk. 
These members are elected for three years each and the terms 
are so arranged that one member is elected each year. 

The annual meeting in a common district is held on the 
third Saturday in July at 7 o’clock P. M. The voters, men 
and women, at the annual meeting elect members of the 
school board, vote the taxes to support the school, fix the 
length of the term, and transact the general business of the 
district. The annual meeting in a common school district 
is a little democracy. At this meeting questions affecting 
the welfare of the district are discussed and decided by a vote 
of the majority. The decisions of the annual meeting reflect 
the sentiments and opinions of the voters toward the school 
and toward education. How important it is that the decisions 
should be based upon correct information and right principles. 
One reason for studying citizenship in the public schools is to 
make future voters intelligent on public questions and to 
help them to understand the ideals of our democracy. 

2. Independent School District. This is the form in many 
of the larger districts. The school board consists of six 
directors. Members of the board serve for three years and 
the terms are so arranged that there are two places to be 
filled each year. The board elects its own chairman, clerk, 
and treasurer from its members. 

The annual meeting occurs on the third Saturday in 
July. At this meeting reports on the district’s business are 
made. Two members are elected to the school board and if 
there has been a resignation or removal of a member his 
place is filled for the unexpired term. While the budget and 
taxes may be discussed at theannualmeeting,theirdetermina- 
tion is left to the school board. 

You will see that in the independent district the members 
of the school board represent the people and as the representa¬ 
tives of the voters they have certain authority defined in the 


72 


ELEMENTARY CITIZENSHIP 


law to levy taxes and establish rules, which have the force of 
laws, for the management of the schools. On account of the 
size of our country and state, much of the control and 
management of the people’s business is done by representa¬ 
tives. The voters choose persons to represent them in the 
government. The American government is, therefore, fre¬ 
quently called a representative government. 

3. Special School District. There are a few districts in the 
state organized under special laws. There is no uniformity 
in the organization of these districts. There is variation in 
the number of school board members and the time of elec¬ 
tion. In some of these districts the members are elected from 
wards of a city while in the common and independent dis¬ 
tricts the members are elected at large. Do you think there 
is any objection to the election of members by wards? In 
some cases, money is voted at the annual meeting, at others 
it is voted by the board and approved by the city council. 
If you live in a school district which is special, you will want 
to study its organization carefully. 

The County As a Unit in School Organization and Man¬ 
agement. Between the state on the one hand and the local 
school district on the other stands the county. The chief 
school official of the county is the superintendent of schools 
who is elected for a term of four years. The superintendent 
has supervision of the schools in the common districts, 
conducts institutes for the teachers, and advises with school 
boards concerning the management of the schools. He 
reports to the Commissioner of Education, upon the enroll¬ 
ment and attendance of pupils in every district in his county. 
Upon this report, the distribution of the apportionment aid 
is made by the State Commissioner of Education. There is a 
one mill county tax for education, but, since the revenue from 
this tax is returned to the districts in the exact amount they 
contribute, this is in effect a local tax. 

There are friends of education in Minnesota who believe 


MINNESOTA'S PUBLIC SCHOOL SYSTEM 73 

the county should be made a stronger unit in the educational 
system of the state and that there should be a county board 
of education charged with special responsibility for the educa¬ 
tional interests of the county. 

The State Teachers Colleges. There are six State 
Teachers Colleges to train teachers for the public schools. 
These institutions are located at Winona, Mankato, St. 
Cloud, Moorhead, Duluth and Bemidji. Each of these col¬ 
leges maintains a model, or training, school to give the student 
teachers an opportunity for observation and practice teaching 
under favorable conditions. These colleges are maintained 
by legislative appropriations made each two years. 

The University of Minnesota is located in Minneapolis 
with the College of Agriculture and University Farm situated 
in Ramsey county adjacent to the city of St. Paul. The 
University offers general and technical courses. It trains 
many teachers for high school teaching and administrative 
positions. The University is supported (1) by legislative 
appropriations, (2) by revenue from a tax of twenty-three 
hundredths (.23) of a mill which is provided in the state 
constitution, and (3) by the income of certain invested funds 
held by the state for the use of the University. 

In addition to the College of Agriculture, Forestry, and 
Home Economics at St. Anthony Park, the state maintains 
the Northwest School of Agriculture at Crookston, the West 
Central School of Agriculture at Morris, the North Central 
Experiment Station at Grand Rapids, the Forest Experiment 
Station at Cloquet, the Fruit Breeding Farm at Zumbra 
Heights, and Demonstration Farms at Waseca and Duluth. 

The University of Minnesota also maintains a “general 
extension service” by conducting night classes and cor¬ 
respondence courses. 

The Responsibility of Pupils. Schools are provided 
through public taxation. Every child is given a chance to 
secure an education. The responsibility rests on the pupils 


74 


ELEMENTARY CITIZENSHIP 


to make use of the opportunities by regular attendance and 
diligent work. The state law provides that every child 
between eight and sixteen years of age, shall attend a public 
or private school for the time the public school is in session. 
The school must teach the common branches in the English 
language. The law provides, too, that school boards may 
excuse pupils for the following reasons: 

1. On account of the child’s bodily or mental condition. 

2. Because the child has completed the eighth grade. 

3. To help with farm work from April 1st to November 
1st in any year, in case the pupil is over fourteen years of age. 

This is known as the compulsory attendance law. 

There is no better way for a pupil to show loyalty to his 
country than through regular attendance and helpful 
co-operation in the work of the school. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Pollock, Hester M. Our Minnesota, E. P. Dutton & Co., 1917. This 
is a history of Minnesota. A chapter is devoted to education. 
Legislative Manual of Minnesota, published on the odd numbered years 
by the Secretary of State. This manual is distributed to all schools 
through the office of the County Superintendent. It contains the 
state constitution and much valuable information of historic and 
civic interest. 

Laws of Minnesota relating to the public school system including the 
State Teachers Colleges and the University of Minnesota. Prepared 
under the direction of the Attorney General and the Commissioner 
of Education. Published by the State Department of Education. 
Biennial Reports. State Department of Education, State Capitol, 
St. Paul. 

Standards relating to the various classes of schools prepared and 
published by the State Department of Education. 

TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION AND INVESTIGATION 

1. Show how the standards for the various classes of schools safe¬ 
guard the interests of children. 

2. Does your district in its physical features, in its size or the 
location or distribution of its population offer a special problem regard¬ 
ing a good school? 


MINNESOTA’S PUBLIC SCHOOL SYSTEM 


75 


Suggestion: Prepare a map of the district showing location of 
the schoolhouse or schoolhouses. Place on the map rivers and bodies 
of water. If it is a rural school district, indicate roads and location of 
homes, and study the way the pupils reach school or the way the school 
reaches the pupil. Consider the advantages or disadvantages of 
transportation. Would a larger district make it possible to provide a 
better school? 

3. Show specificially the educational needs of the people which 
your district supplies through the school; through other agencies. 

Suggestions: Does your community need training for children of 
different ages and grades? preparation for different occupations? special 
classes for blind, deaf, or crippled children? instruction in special 
subjects? training for pupils who are forced to leave school before 
completing their course? 

4. What is the effect of good schools on a community? What 
would you do to improve your school if you were in charge of it? 

Suggestions: The improvement of school building and grounds 
with a fair cost to the district. Modification of the course of study 
and of the subjects to fit the needs of your community. Securing the 
co-operation of the people of the district. 

How many parents of children have visited your school this year? 
State definitely how you would bring about the above changes. 

5. Name and locate the higher educational agencies of the state 
and give the purpose w’hich each serves. 

6. The business management of the affairs of the district and school 
is under the control of the local school board. Who are they? What 
are their duties? What are their terms of office? How and when are 
they chosen in your district? What are the characteristics of a good 
school board member? What important matters in connection with 
your schools were considered at the last annual meeting? 

The instruction in your schools is carried on by a teacher or teachers. 
What are the requirements for a teacher? What work and activities 
are undertaken by the teachers in your school? 

7. What are the financial needs of your school district? 

Suggestion: Find the cost of the school last year. Make a budget 

for the district considering the school needs and the items for which 
money is needed. Can you suggest where economy in spending money 
would not be wise? 

8. Your school gets money for its support from two sources, state 
and local taxation. On the map of your district, indicate the area and 
the assessed valuation of the district. 

a. Local funds. How much money was raised by local taxes 


76 


ELEMENTARY CITIZENSHIP 


last year to provide for the maintenance of the school? 

You now have the assessed valuation and the amount of 
money raised. Can you determine the local tax rate for school 
purposes? Whose duty is it to determine this? Is there any 
limit to the amount that may be levied for school purposes? 

b. State funds. How much money did your school receive 
from the state last year to provide for its maintenance? What 
part of the cost of education in your school was met by state 
funds? For what purposes was state aid granted to your 
school? What amount was granted under each item? Could 
your school have earned more money? 

c. How much did your education cost last year? How much 
of this was paid by your father? by the community? by the state? 
Why should people who have no children be required to pay 
school taxes? Why should the state be interested in your 
education? 

9. Explain the purpose and the meaning of the compulsory educa¬ 
tion law of Minnesota. Explain the j ustice of such a law in a democracy. 

10. Why do pupils in your school drop out before completing the 
course? Is it ever right for a pupil to drop out of school? What is the 
effect upon the school and the taxpayers? In what way are pupils 
who leave school early handicapped? Why should not this matter of 
attendance be determined by the parents rather than by the state? 

11. In 1920 the Secretary of the United States Treasury estimated 
the expenditures for luxuries in the United States as follows: 

$1,526,000,000 for autos. 

$2,289,000,000 for tobacco. 

$1,000,000,000 for candy. 

$350,000,000 for soft drinks. 

$5,000,000,000 for luxurious foods. 

Make problems comparing the expenditures for these various 
items with that of the $1,039,000,000 spent for public education in 
the United States during that year. 


CHAPTER VI 


SECURITY OF LIFE AND PROTECTION OF PROPERTY 

Our government has been tried in peace, and it has been 
tried in war, and has proved itself fit for both. 

—Webster 

Fundamental Rights of Men. There are certain rights 
that Americans believe should be the possession of every 
one. These are the rights which the framers of the Declara¬ 
tion of Independence had in mind when they said, “That all 
men are endowed by their Creator with certain inalienable 
rights, that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of 
happiness.” The struggle to secure these rights, furnishes a 
large part of the story of history. The records of the past 
tell of the drawing up and signing of great documents in 
which the rights of people were guaranteed. These documents 
were in the nature of contracts between the king and his sub¬ 
jects, the government and a community, or between free citi¬ 
zens. In history different names are given to these contracts. 

In the Middle Ages, charters were given to towns. These 
charters were written contracts made by a king or feudal 
lord promising to the towns certain rights and privileges in 
exchange for specified service. This service might require 
military help in times of war or it might demand the payment 
of money or taxes. The word charter is a legal term in use 
to-day to define an instrument granting privileges. 

One of the great charters of history was the “Magna 
Charta” which King John of England signed in 1215 A. D. 
This “Great Charter” contained forty-nine articles and 
guaranteed among other things, personal freedom and a 
regular judicial system with trial by jury. This charter was 


78 


ELEMENTARY CITIZENSHIP 


a written agreement between the English barons on one side 
and King John on the other. Kings were in the habit of mak¬ 
ing oral promises and promptly forgetting them. The Magna 
Charta was significant because it was a written document. 

In the organization of the United States of America, there 
was no king or superior authority to grant a charter. The 
people, however, wished to have a written instrument which 
should define the rights and duties of citizens and their organiza¬ 
tion into a self-governing nation. The result was the con¬ 
stitution of the United States. This great document is the 
basic law of this country. It is a mutual agreement entered 
into by free men. After the constitution of the United 
States had been ratified in 1789 there were those who thought 
the document did not define personal liberties. Ten amend¬ 
ments were, therefore, proposed and adopted in 1791. These 
are amendments I to X inclusive and are commonly known 
as the Bill of Rights. The first article of the Minnesota 
constitution is entitled “Bill of Rights.” This article con¬ 
tains eighteen sections in which the basic principles of liberty 
and justice are restated. 

BASIC PRINCIPLES OF GOVERNMENT 

These basic principles of government are stated and re¬ 
stated in historic documents known as constitutions, charters, 
deeds or contracts, and may be summarized under three heads. 

1. Liberty. Under this principle a citizen is free from 
bondage of every kind, free to follow the dictates of his own 
conscience, and free in the conduct of his own business, pro¬ 
vided he does not inj ure his neighbor and fellow citizens. Lib¬ 
erty does not mean doing as one pleases, regardless of the rights 
of others. True liberty means practicing the Golden Rule. 

2. Security of Person. Freedom from danger of accident 
and personal violence is the desire of every man. In a 
democracy, all are under obligation to protect life and to 
recognize the home as a refuge in which the inmates should 


RIGHTS OF LIFE AND PROPERTY 


79 


be safe. Without the sense of security, it is impossible for a 
people to carry on business or be happy and contented. 

3. Property Rights. The desire to be an owner is in¬ 
stinctive. Ownership not only gives pleasure, but it is 
insurance against want. The savage makes little provision 
to supply future needs. Civilized man has learned to 
accumulate property so that in old age or misfortune he can 
supply his own needs or the needs of others less fortunate. 

WAYS IN WHICH RIGHTS ARE REALIZED 

It has just been shown that certain rights belong to 
every citizen. These rights have been discussed briefly 
under the topics of liberty, security of person, and property 
rights. The realization of these fundamental rights is 
possible only through industry, fair play, and helpful service 
on the part of all. A member of a home enjoys rights and 
privileges, but a worthy home member accepts responsibility 
for some of the work of the home. The fundamental principles 
of American democracy can be realized only through the 
loyalty of its citizens in meeting their obligations and duties. 
Democracy means brotherhood and active co-operation for 
the common good. Let us consider the ways in which life is 
made secure and property is protected. 

1. Laws. All laws, whether acts of Congress, statutes of 
a state, or the ordinances of a city or village council, must 
recognize the rights to life and property. Many specific laws 
have been passed protecting persons from bodily injury and 
property from wanton destruction. Severe penalties are 
provided for murder, robbery, and arson. Such offenses are 
crimes, because they are infringements of somebody’s right 
to security of person or to the enjoyment of his property. 
The criminal is arrested and punished even though the one 
he injured is willing to forgive him. It is the County 
Attorney’s business to see that criminals are prosecuted. 

There are laws which guard against accidents in traveling. 


80 


ELEMENTARY CITIZENSHIP 


Laws regulate travel by boat, by steam cars, by street cars 
and by automobile on the public highways. There are 
stringent regulations for the construction of buildings used 
by the public. Theaters, hotels, schools, and factories must 
comply with safety regulations. 

Workman are protected, especially those engaged in 
hazardous occupations. A Workmen’s Compensation Act 
became a law in Minnesota in 1913. This Act provides 
compensation to be paid by the employer to the employee, 
or, in the case of his death, to his dependents, for injuries 
sustained in the course of the employment. The Minnesota 
Act does not apply to employees of interstate railroads, nor to 
domestic servants and farm laborers. The law provides 
compensation for industrial accidents and occupational 
diseases which cause partial or total disability. The com¬ 
pensation fixed by law is two thirds of the regular wage, but 
in no case may one receive more than twenty dollars per week 
nor less than eight dollars per week. The time for which 
compensation is paid varies from ten to four hundred weeks. 
There is also a Federal Employers’ Liability law which pro¬ 
vides compensation to employees on interstate railroads. 

Title to real property is transferred by means of a deed, 
the form of which is prescribed in law. When a deed is record¬ 
ed, it establishes right to property. 

As the social and industrial conditions change, new laws 
are needed to protect life and property. Law-making bodies 
meet frequently to frame laws for the protection of all. 

2. Records. In making legal claim to rights of owner¬ 
ship records are important. Official records are kept by 
state and county officers. 

The Clerk of Court in each count}' keeps records of births 
and deaths. He issues and records marriage licenses. 

The Register of Deeds is the county officer who carefully 
records all deeds to property and mortgages on property. 
Under the laws of Minnesota, a farmer may select a name for 


RIGHTS OF LIFE AND PROPERTY 


81 


his farm and have it recorded in the office of the Register of 
Deeds. No one else in the county would have the right to 
call his farm by that name. A name selected in this way has 
a sentimental value, but it also has a commercial value. A 
trade-mark stands for a certain brand of goods. In the same 
way, a farm name may stand for production of some special 
crop or fine breed of animals. 

The Secretary of State is the recording officer for Minne¬ 
sota. In this office are kept records of all corporations 
chartered by the state. Charters are granted to banks, 
public service corporations, private stock companies, colleges, 
churches, and organizations for the general welfare. A 
corporation transacts business and owns property on the 
same basis as a person. 

The extensive use of the automobile, led the legislature 
to pass a law putting the motor vehicle in a special class of 
property and requiring that,every car and truck should be 
registered and licensed. Before a motor vehicle is registered, 
rightful ownership must be established. An official record 
is made of every motor car in the state with the name and 
address of the owner. This record helps to protect owner¬ 
ship and prevent theft. 

3. The Interpretation of Laws by Courts. In the amend¬ 
ments to the United States Constitution, Article V, is this 
statement, “No persons shall be deprived of life, liberty or 
property, without due process of law.” A judicial system is 
thus necessary to interpret and apply the principles laid 
down in law. A game on the school grounds may be played 
according to very definite rules, but disputes will arise. 
Contending players or teams find it necessary to refer deci¬ 
sions to an umpire who interprets the rules and renders 
decisions. In the same way a judge is an umpire. His 
decisions are based upon the law and the facts in the case. 

There are four classes of courts in Minnesota: 

1. Local Courts. These are called Justice, Police or 


82 


ELEMENTARY CITIZENSHIP 


Municipal, which have jurisdiction in cases where the amount 
in controversy is small or where the punishment does not ex¬ 
ceed a fine of one hundred dollars. Every township and village 
in Minnesota elects a justice who may hold court and try cases. 

2. County Courts. In each county there is a Probate 
Court which decides questions of title to the property of 
persons deceased. 

3. District Courts. At the present time there are nine¬ 
teen judicial districts with one or more judges in each district. 
This court has jurisdiction in civil and criminal cases not 
taken to the justice or municipal court. Cases may be 
appealed to the district court from a lower court. 

4. Supreme Court. There is one final court for the state 
presided over by five judges. Most of the cases brought to 
the Supreme Court are on appeal from the decisions of the 
district courts. 

In recent j^ears there have been established Juvenile Courts, 
where young offenders may be tried. In Minnesota the county 
judge of Probate may try cases involving juveniles. Juvenile 
Courts are also maintained in the larger cities of the state. 

The federal government maintains a complete system of 
United States courts that have jurisdiction in cases to which 
federal law applies. 

4. Peace Officers and Protective Agencies of Govern¬ 
ment. This type of government service is represented by 
two men, the policeman and the fireman. 

The work of the policeman requires intelligence, courage, 
and a willingness to be of service. His business is to prevent 
crime and accidents, to see that the laws are obeyed and to 
protect the weak, the young, and the infirm. In cities, there 
are policemen on duty day and night. A policeman is often 
exposed to hardship and danger. Thoughtful citizens ap¬ 
preciate his conscientious and faithful performance of duty. 
The best way to help the policeman is by carefully observing 
the laws of the state and the ordinances of the city. In many 


RIGHTS OF LIFE AND PROPERTY 


83 

cities, schools for policemen are maintained to teach members 
of the police force how to handle crowds, ways in which 
courtesies can be shown the public, and what to do in the 
case of emergencies and accidents. 

The policeman is a peace officer in the city. In the town¬ 
ships and villages of the state constables are elected who serve 
as officers of the law. In the counties this responsibility 
rests upon sheriffs. 

Recently there has been agitation for a state constabulary 
whose officers would have authority to make arrests anywhere 
in the state. The development of roads and the use of auto¬ 
mobiles make it possible for criminals to escape from the city or 
county where the crime was committed without being caught. 

5. Minnesota National Guard and the Minnesota Naval 
Militia are the official designations of the active military and 
naval forces of the state. The adjutant general of the state 
is the executive officer of these forces. The national guard 
consists of seventy-three units, stationed in thirty-six cities 
and towns. The federal government makes appropriations 
for the equipping and training of the guard. 

The national guard is called upon to take charge of usual 
situations which demand prompt action to protect life and 
property. The national guard has been called on in the case 
of emergencies arising from forest fires, tornadoes, and gen¬ 
eral strikes. 

6. Commissions and Boards. As agencies for the pro¬ 
tection of the rights of the state and of its citizens there are 
various commissions and boards. These, in general, exercise 
authority over rates, grain, weights and measures, food, game, 
roads, taxes, investments, health, auditing, and the compe¬ 
tency of persons to perform services that involve the public. 
For a complete list of these commissions and boards, together 
with there special duties, see the latest “Legislative Manual /’ 

7. The Public and “Safety First.” The slogan, “Safety 
First,” is used to arouse people to help prevent accidents. 


84 


ELEMENTARY CITIZENSHIP 


Nearly every newspaper gives an account of some accident 
in which persons are injured or killed. Many of these 
accidents might have been prevented, if more care had been 
exercised. In order to show that “Safety First” principles 
need to be practiced two tables are given. The first table 
shows the deaths in the United States from accidental 
causes. Over seventy-five thousand are annually killed in 
the United States by accidents. The number of deaths does 
not tell the story of economic loss and human suffering due 
to accidents. Where one meets death through accident, 



Figure 25. Traffic violations are the cause of many accidents to children. 


several are more or less severely injured. Accidents may be 
divided into three classes. Home accidents are those which 
occur in connection with the home and its activities. Women 
and children are subject to accidents of this kind. Study 
the table and see whether you can determine the principal 
causes of home accidents. Public accidents take place on 
streets and highways, in cars and railroad trains and at 
resorts. Industrial accidents define injuries suffered by 
workmen in shops, factories, and transportation systems. 
An analysis of the fatal accidents in the United States fora 








RIGHTS OF LIFE AND PROPERTY 


85 


single week showed that 8 per cent were home accidents, 62 
per cent public accidents, and 30 per cent industrial accidents. 

The second table compares the rate of accidents in the 
United States with the rate in England and Wales. The rate in 
our country is about twice that of England. The record for 
the United States ought to be improved, and it may be if the 
general public will practice the principles of “Safety First.” 


Deaths from Accident in Continental United States 

During 1919. 


Cause 

Males 

Rate per 
100,000 

Females 

Rate per 
100,000 

Automobiles. 

7,372 

13.77 

2,453 

4.77 

Railroads. 

6,878 

12.85 

895 

1.74 

Falls. 

6,503 

12.15 

5,370. 

10.44 

Drownings. 

6,302 

11.78 

916 

1.78 

Burns. 

3,314 

6.19 

4,588 

8.92 

Mines. 

2,686 

5.01 

1 


Firearms. 

2,483 

4.64 

414 

.81 

Machines. 

2,446 

4.57 

121 

.23 

Gases. 

2,417 

4.52 

1,139 

2.21 

Other vehicles. 

2,145 

4.01 

384 

.55 

Street cars. 

1,875 

3.50 

487 

.95 

Acute poisoning. 

1,359 

2.54 

821 

1.60 

All other causes. 

9,640 

18.00 

2.636 

6.12 

Total. 

Total 1914. 

55,420 

58,701 

103.54 

117.24 

20,125 

18,338 

39.12 

38.10 


Death Rates per 1,000.000 of Population in United States and in 

England and Wales 


Cause 

United States 

England and Wales 

1911 

1920 

1911 

1920 

All accidents. 

846 

714 

457 

369 

Burns. 

77 

76 

65 

47 

Drowning. 

94 

57 

73 

50 

Firearms. 

22 

26 

2 

3 

Falls. 

150 

118 

89 

77 

Other crushings. 

229 

225 

83 

102 


The school can do much to help decrease accidents. 
Preventable accidents are due (1) to impulse, (2) to bad 
habits, (3) to ignorance. Impulse leads the automobile 



















































86 


ELEMEN T A R Y Cl TI ZEN SHIP 


driver to race a train or another machine. Impulse prompts 
the boy to accept a foolish dare. Leaving a gun loaded, 
starting the kitchen fire with kerosene, and crossing a street 
diagonally are bad practices, responsible for many accidents. 
In ignorance, a match may be applied to an explosive gas or a 
live electric wire may be touched, with fatal results. 

8. Fire Prevention. Every community needs firemen. In 
the larger cities of the state regular firemen are employed 
to be constantly ready to answer in case of fire. In other 
cities and villages the fire department is manned by volunteer 
workers who respond day or night to the alarm of fire. When 
fire is under control it is a servant of man; out of control, 
it is a demon. Losses from fires in the United States are 
tremendous. It is estimated that the annual destruction 
of property amounts to $2.10 for every inhabitant. Before 
the World War, the annual fire loss for each man, woman, 
and child in France was 49 cents; in England 33 cents; in 
Germany 28 cents; in Austria 25 cents; in Italy 25 cents; 
in Switzerland 15 cents; and in Holland 11 cents. Thus the 
annual fire loss in the United States is greater than the 
value of the land and improvements in some of the states 
of the Union. The great cause of fires is carelessness. If 
every citizen would use care in the use of fire and com¬ 
bustible materials, many fires would be prevented. Every 
pupil can tell many ways to prevent fires. Here are some 
cautions to set you thinking about the problem. 

1. Matches should be kept in a safe and secure place 
away from mice and children. Safety matches are best. 

2. Candles and burning lights should be used with great 
care. Keep such lights from curtains and see that they are 
put in secure places. 

3. Stoves and furnaces should be watched, especially in 
very cold weather. Smoke pipes need to be free from soot 
and securely fastened in place. The ashes from a stove should 
not be put in a wooden barrel or box. 


RIGHTS OF LIFE AND PROPERTY 


87 





Figure 28. Automatic hoist aerial truck—hook and ladder. 


Figure 27. A modern horse-drawn fire engine. 


Figure 26. Modern motorized fire apparatus. 


!»*S 















88 


ELEMENTARY CITIZENSHIP 


4. Great care should be taken with bonfires and camp 
fires. Never leave such fires until you are sure that every 
spark has been extinguished. 

5. Cleaning compounds are dangerous and should not be 
used near a flame. Gasolene may ignite by being rubbed. 
Neither it nor kerosene should ever be handled near a flame. 

6. Rubbish and oily rags are responsible for many fires in 
homes, school houses, and office buildings. Rubbish should 
be disposed of. Oily rags are used for dusting, polishing, 
etc., but when not in use should be left in a fire-proof con¬ 
tainer. 

7. Electric wires carrying a current often cause fires. 
Wiring and connections should be installed by an expert. Do 
not leave an electric device without turning the current off. 

8. The careless smoker is responsible for much property 
damage. The safest rule is not to smoke. 

9. Taxes. Taxes are compulsory assessments made upon 
property, persons, and business for the support of govern¬ 
ments. The organization of governments is for the purpose 
of promoting security of life, safeguarding property rights, 
and advancing the general welfare of society. Since the 
benefits of governments are general, taxes are necessarily 
and justly levied upon the resources of society for the cost of 
governmental operations. 

The federal government receives its revenue from three 
sources, (1) the income tax, which was authorized by the 
sixteenth amendment to the United States constitution, 
(2) customs levied upon imports and (3) internal revenue in 
the form of a tax on certain manufactured articles. The 
receipts of the United States government from all sources for 
the year 1922 were a little over four billion dollars. As the 
debts of the war are met it is thought that a smaller amount 
will meet the needs of the government. 

In the state of Minnesota the principal sources of revenue 
are (1) property tax on the valuation of land, buildings, and 


RIGHTS OF LIFE AND PROPERTY 


89 



from state 
institutions 
134 y 


CERTIFICATES 
F INDEBTEDNESS 
20 4 


LOANS REDEEMED 


BONOS SOLD Z » 


X?'^cc 




TAXES 

45/24 


.^^GROSS 

earnings tax 

FROMRYfeETCJ 
IS 4 j/ 


COUNTY TAXES 
234 


figure 29. Diagram showing sources of the public money. 



Figure 30. Diagram showing distribution of the public money. 








90 ELEMENTARY CITIZENSHIP 

personal effects and (2) gross earnings tax on the earnings of 
railroads and telephone companies. 

The following tables show property valuations and 
average tax in mills for the state, together with the purposes 
for which taxes are used: 

Taxable Values and Millage Tax in Minnesota 

1901 1911 1921 

Taxable values.$600,980,614 $1,212,567,794 $2,026,793,710 

Average tax rate in mills.. 26.03 27.86 52.67 


Purposes for Which Taxes Are Levied in Minnesota, with Amounts 



1901 

1911 

1921 

State purposes, exclusive of 
education and roads and 
bridges. 

$ 961,735 

2,768,532 

4,443,265 

604,843 

5,769,071 

1,097,941 

$ 2,702,410 

4,739,207 

8,873,712 

1,076,460 

12,635,867 

3,719,934 

$ 3,658,451 

11,050,238 

27,376,897 

2,324,164 

42,569,238 

21,040,655 

County purposes, exclusive of 
roads and bridges. 

City and village purposes ex¬ 
clusive of roads and bridges . 
Township purposes, exclusive 
of roads and bridges. 

Educational purposes. 

Road and bridge purposes .... 

Totals. 

$15,645,387 

$33,747,590 

$108,019,673 



10. Intelligent Co-operation of Citizens. The success of 
democracy depends upon the intelligent co-operation of all 
its citizens. The hope of America is not in the multiplicity 
of laws, not in large forces of police, not in huge engines and 
trained fire fighters but in the integrity of its citizens. The 
happiness and prosperity of a people is dependent upon the 
degree to which the citizens obey the laws, recognize the 
rights of others, and honestly help in the work of the world. 
Many of the failures of democracy are due as much to 
indifference as to lack of knowledge. When private citizens 
generally recognize their duties and obligations, and willingly 
accept their responsibilities, life will be secure and property 
safe. Then, police and protective forces can be reduced 
and the burden of taxation lightened. 






















RIGHTS OF LIFE AND PROPERTY 


91 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Crump, Irving. The Boy’s Book of Policemen. Dodd, Mead and 

Company, 1917. 

Crump, Irving. The Boy’s Book of Firemen. Dodd, Mead and 

Company, 1917. 

Waldo, Lillian M. Safety First for Little Folks. Charles Scribner’s 

Sons, 1918. 

TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION AND INVESTIGATION 

1. What do you understand by a constitution? Why was the 
United States Constitution made? Why is it needed now? 

2. Trace the immediate steps leading up to framing of the Constitu¬ 
tion by stating what was accomplished by: the First Continental 
Congress; the Second Continental Congress. What is the striking 
difference between the Constitution and the Articles of Confederation? 

3. Study the Magna Charta. Show how our Constitution was 
influenced by it. What is the one outstanding difference between our 
Constitution and the Magna Charta? 

4. Explain how the three basic principles of the Constitution 
protect you. Give .two or three illustrations under each principle to 
show how you or your family are protected. Can you legally hold 
property? Are you a citizen? 

5. Make a list of your rights; of your duties. Which do you 
regard as the more important and why, rights or duties? Does a 
regulation forbidding you to ride a bicycle on the sidewalk rob you of 
your rights? 

6. Why should the State of Minnesota adopt a “Bill of Rights”? 
Compare it with the ten original amendments to the Constitution and 
determine whether Minnesota grants its citizens more or fewer personal 
liberties than are granted by the Constitution. 

7. What state regulations and laws are there for the protection of 
workmen? How are they enforced? Do they affect any occupations 
in your community? 

8. Can you cite any specific laws that protect persons from bodily 
injury? that guard against accidents in travel? 

9. Why should the State of Minnesota demand that employers 
pay workmen injured in their employment? Why does this Work¬ 
man’s Compensation Act not apply to farm laborers and domestic 
servants? 

10. Make a list of the different legal records kept by the state and 
County officers for the people in your community. Where would you 


92 


ELEMENTARY CITIZENSHIP 


go to find out about the title to a piece of property you wish to buy? to 
get an automobile license? to get your birth certificate? 

11. Explain in your own way this statement, “No person shall be 
deprived of life, liberty or property without due process of law.” 

12. Explain how the classes of courts in Minnesota are well adapted 
to the needs of the state. Why should some cases be tried in local, in 
state, in federal courts? Give illustrations of cases that should be 
tried before a Justice of the Peace in local courts; before the Probate 
Judge; before the District Judge; before the Judges of the State Supreme 
Court. Name the Justice of the Peace in your community; the Probate 
Judge of your county; the District Judge. How are these officers 
chosen? What judicial district are you in? 

13. What is meant by a jury trial? In what cases are there jury 
trials? Who may serve as jurors? What is the method of selecting 
jurors? 

14. What are the special duties of a policeman? a constable? 
How do their duties differ? How are the rural districts given protec¬ 
tion? Under what conditions can citizens be called upon to act as 
policemen? 

15. Why should the state desire to establish a State Constabulary? 
How does the state help to keep order in your community? Under 
what circumstances does the state ever step in to take charge of law 
enforcement? 

16. How can good citizens of all ages help police officers to maintain 
order? 

17. Compare the fire loss of the United States with that of foreign 
countries? How do you account for the difference? 

18. What local and state regulations are there for the prevention of 
fire in your community? How are they enforced? How is your school 
building safeguarded? Explain the organization of your fire depart¬ 
ment. What were the causes of the large fires in your community last 
year? How much was the total loss by fire? Could any of the fires 
have been prevented? How much did police and fire protection cost 
your community last year? Make suggestions for the enforcement of 
fire protection in your community. What does fire insurance cost per 
.$100. Is this rate high or low? 

19. Study and make a report of the disastrous forest fires which 
have occurred in Minnesota within the last five years? Explain the 
means by which the state protects its forests? 

20. Draw up a code of “Safety First” principles to guard against the 
more common home accidents; public accidents; industrial accidents. 


CHAPTER VII 


TRANSPORTATION AND COMMUNICATION 

I’ll put a girdle round about the earth in forty minutes. 

—Shakespeare 

The Red-River Cart and Pioneer Days. In the museum 
of the State Historical Society there is to be seen a Red-River 
cart. This cumbersome vehicle suggests the crude means of 
transportation employed in the Northwest seventy-five years 
ago. The Red-River cart had two high wheels and was made 
entirely of wood. It was drawn by an ox hitched between 
two stout thills. These carts were used to carry buffalo 
hides and furs from the settlements in the Red River Valley 
to the trading post in St. Paul, a distance of four or five 
hundred miles. On the return trip, tools and supplies were 
the basis of the loads. Early in the spring, as soon as the 
trail was passable and the grass was green enough to furnish 
food for oxen, caravans left the settlements along the Red 
River of the North with the winter’s catch of skins. For 
companionship and protection the drivers traveled in parties. 
Sometimes there were as many as one hundred carts in the 
caravan. No grease was used on the axles and the squeak of 
the moving carts is said to have been heard for miles. Fifteen 
miles was the average day’s travel. A month was thus con¬ 
sumed in the trip from the settlement to the trading post at 
the head of navigation on the Mississippi, the round trip 
occupying two or three months. The departure and arrival 
of these trains were great events in the life of the settlements. 

In 1849 when Congress passed a measure authorizing the 
organization of the territory of Minnesota, it took thirty- 
seven days for the good news to reach St. Paul. The 


94 


ELEMENTARY CITIZENSHIP 


announcement of Congress’ action was brought up the Missis¬ 
sippi by the first boat of that season. In June of that year 
Alexander Ramsey, who was the first territorial governor, 
ordered a census to be taken. After counting 317 soldiers at 
Fort Snelling, the total population of the territory was 
reported as 4,780 souls. The territory of Minnesota ex¬ 
tended westward to the Missouri River and included part of 
what is now North Dakota. The census revealed 637 
persons at Pembina where the first white settlement of Minne- 



Figure 31. Red-River carts from Pembina. A rest scene. Courtesy Minnesota 

Historical Society. 


sota was made by a company of Scotch Highlanders. Other 
settlements included in that first census were at Mendota, 
adjoining the Fort, St. Paul across the river, Marine-on-the- 
St. Croix, Stillwater, and St. Anthony Falls, which is now 
Minneapolis. 

These sparse and scattered settlements of 1849 were 
dependent upon the Red-River cart and the steamboat on 
the Mississippi for supplies and news. While the lives of 
the pioneers were filled with hardship and danger, they were 
laying the foundations for the life and institutions of to-day. 
Boys and girls had few advantages, but they caught the 
spirit of industry and devotion and made use of opportuni- 







TRANSPORTATION AND COMMUNICATION 95 

ties. Life was not devoid of good times. The outdoor 
activities and simple pleasures of that day were wholesome 
and stimulating. The sons and daughters of those early 
pioneers are the leaders of to-day. 

The Rural Neighborhood of To-day As a Community 
Center. Compare the life of to-day in the rural communities 
with life in the pioneer settlements. A great change has 
taken place, due directly and largely to the development of 
methods in transportation and communication. Life on the 
farm is no longer a life of isolation. Distances, when 
measured in time to travel, have been much reduced. The 
automobile and steam cars have replaced the ox cart. The 
farmer and his family are in easy reach of market, school, 
church, and entertainment. Through the rural free delivery, 
mail is delivered daily to the homes. The prompt delivery 
of letters is an aid to business and strengthens social ties. 
The government system of parcel post delivers orders from 
the village and city stores and carries to the market of city 
homes, eggs, butter, and other farm products. The news of 
the world is made available to the people of the country 
through newspapers and periodicals and even by means of 
the radio. 

Communities are as characteristic and different as 
individuals. Most rural communities stand for something 
distinctive. The distinction may be on account of some 
fine product, as potatoes, wheat, corn, Holstein cattle, 
Guernsey cows, or hogs. Again the distinction may be due 
to successful methods of marketing products as eggs, milk or 
butter. It may be due to some welfare enterprise like a 
consolidated school or successful rural church. In the 
organization and promotion of any community enterprise, 
good roads and quick methods of communication and trans¬ 
portation are essential. 

But successful rural community life does not come by 
chance. It is the result of human effort. In communities 


96 


ELEMENTARY CITIZENSHIP 


which stand for distinctive things, there is always a neighbor¬ 
ly spirit which binds all together in their common interests 
and common efforts. The schools and the churches furnish 
centers, where the social, intellectual, and recreational life 
of the communities finds expression. The friendly spirit so 
necessary in building up a school or a church is fostered by 
telephones and roads and frequent community gatherings. 
There were in Minnesota in 1922 a total of 315 consolidated 
schools. To these schools twenty-five thousand pupils were 
daily transported, the total daily mileage being 125,000 miles 
or a distance five times the circumference of the world. 

The Growth of Cities in the United States. One of the 
surprising things in the development of the United States 
has been the rapid growth of cities. One hundred years ago 
there were only two cities, New York and Philadelphia, with 
populations of more than 100,000; fifty years ago there were 
fourteen such cities; to-day there are sixty-eight cities with a 
population exceeding 100,000. Not only has the number of 
cities increased, but the population of cities has grown 
tremendously. The population of New York City has in¬ 
creased from 123,706 in 1820 to 5,620,048 in 1920. The 
following table shows the population growth in the United 
States and the massing of people in cities. Any place of 
2,500 population is counted as an urban community; other 
places are regarded as rural. 


Population of United States and Per Cent of People Living in Rural 

and Urban Communities 


Year 

Population 

Urban Per Cent 

Rural Per Cent 

1880. 

50,155,783 

28.6 

71.4 

1890. 

62,947,714 

35.4 

64.6 

1900. 

75,994,575 

40. 

60. 

1910. 

91,972,266 

46. 

54. 

1920. 

105,683,108 

51.4 

48.6 


The location of cities is determined by transportation 
facilities. It would be impossible for a village to grow to be 
a city without adequate and ready means of transportation 












TRANSPORTATION AND COMMUNICATION 


97 


and commerce. The people of the city must secure their 
food supply and the factories their raw materials from the 
country. If the milk supply alone of a city were cut off for a 
single day, great suffering would result. The size of a city 
creates for it a transportation problem of its own. Distances 
are so great that people can not walk to business, to school, 
and to church. Thousands of business men, clerks and stenog¬ 
raphers must be taken “down town” every morning and 
home again in the evening; thousands of high-school pupils 
are living miles from their school and must be carried there 
and back each day. When all these have been cared for, 
the shoppers must go to the stores to purchase supplies for 
the homes, and some means must be found to transport not 
only the shoppers but also their purchases. The street car 
was the first answer to this need, but many business men and 
shoppers are using automobiles. The use of automobiles 
gives rise to another problem, since parking space must be 
found for them while their owners are attending to business. 
So each new development of community life gives rise to new 
occasions for co-operation and mutual helpfulness. 

Minnesota’s System of Good Roads. Minnesota is 
known throughout the country for its program for good roads. 
For more than fifty years, road improvement and main¬ 
tenance was in charge of local authorities. The state began 
its program of road building in 1905. In that year the 
Robert C. Dunn amendment to the constitution was adopted. 
This amendment provided for a general property tax of one- 
twentieth of a mill for highway construction aid. This tax 
has been raised from time to time until it is now one mill, 
and yields two million dollars. This money is spent on state- 
aided roads by the county authorities. 

The building and maintaining of trunk highways by the 
state began with the adoption of the “Good Roads” amend¬ 
ment at the election in 1920. This amendment put inter¬ 
county trunk highways under control of the state. It provided 


98 


ELEMENTARY CITIZENSHIP 


for the building and upkeep of these roads through a tax upon 
motor vehicles. This tax is in place of a local personal 
property tax on the automobiles. The tax on a motor car 
is fixed at 2 % per cent of the value of the car. For the 
first year, the value is determined by the factory list price. 
Each succeeding year the value is reduced one tenth of the 
list price until the eighth year, when it continues to be taxed 
on the basis of three tenths of the original value. The 
minimum tax is $12.00 on a passenger car and $15.00 on a 
truck. This tax on motor vehicles has yielded in 1923 over 
seven million dollars. To this sum the national government 



Figure 32. Illustration of a good road paved with cement. 


will add another one and one half million dollars. So that 
there is being expended more than eight million dollars an¬ 
nually for trunk highways in Minnesota. 

There are in Minnesota about 100,000 miles of roads. 
The trunk highways comprise 7,000 miles of road. It is 
estimated that these trunk highways carry four fifths of all 
the traffic of the state. Next there are 8,500 miles of state- 
aided roads that are in charge of county officials. The rest 
are county and township roads under local control. 

During the first two years that the “Good Roads” amend¬ 
ment has been in force, 2,261 miles of roadbed were graded, 











TRANSPORTATION AND COMMUNICATION 


99 


2,246 miles of road were graveled and 241 miles paved. 
These improvements cost on the average, $5,610 a mile for 
grading, $3,383 for gravel-surfacing and $35,520 for paving, 
mainly of concrete, 7}4 inches thick and 18 feet wide. 

The trunk highways of the state are numbered and care¬ 
fully marked. The Star on the sign being the symbol for 
Minnesota which is the North Star state. The 7,000 miles of 
state roads are patroled and dragged by men employed by the 
government to maintain these highways in good condition. 
These trunk highways are sometimes called “Babcock 



Figure 33. Illustration of early railroad equipment. 


Roads” from C. M. Babcock who was largely responsible 
for the “Good Roads” amendment and is the present Com¬ 
missioner of Highways for the state. 

National Highways. The advancement of the Unite^ 
States can be measured by the growth and improvement 
transportation facilities. Mr. James J. Hill once said/, 
“There are three books which, if accurately written, would be 
found to follow parallel lines, dealing with the same material 
and proceeding from the same starting place to the same goal. 
These are the history of commerce, the history of transporta¬ 
tion, and the history of civilization.” As transportation is 






100 


ELEMENTARY CITIZENSHIP 


important in the development of a small community, it is 
equally necessary in the larger community of the nation. 
History tells of the efforts of the United States to encourage 
means of transportation by construction of national roads, 
digging of canals and waterways and land grants to railroads. 
In territorial days, Minnesota was linked to the rest of the 
United States and the world largely through the Mississippi 
River which furnished a natural waterway. In 1849 records 
indicate 95 steamboat arrivals at Fort Snelling from Galena, 



Figure 34. Scene showing a modern electric locomotive and train. This locomotive 
is 112 feet 8 inches long and weighs 284 tons. It will pull 3,200 tons on the level at 
60 miles an hour. Courtesy Chicago, St. Paul and Milwaukee Railroad Co. 


Illinois. In later years traffic on the Mississippi River has 
fallen off. Transportation on water is much cheaper than on 
land, but it is slower. Then, too, handling of freight at boat 
terminals is frequently expensive. Minnesota also has access 
to the Great Lakes. From Duluth and Two Harbors wheat 
and iron ore are shipped East and coal is returned. From 
these two ports about thirty million tons of iron ore are 
shipped annually. 

There is a great plan under consideration for the improve¬ 
ment of the St. Lawrence river by the United States and 
Canada to give ocean-going commerce access to the Great 













TRANSPORTATION AND COMMUNICATION 101 


Lakes. This plan is known as the “Great Lakes-St. Lawrence 
tidewater project.” The plan involves the use of the Well¬ 
and canal and the construction of a canal around the rapids 
in the St. Lawrence above the city of Montreal. 

The railroad is the main highway for the transportation 
traffic of the state and the nation. The Great Northern 
railroad follows the old trail of the Red-River carts across the 
state and westward to the Pacific coast. The first railroad 
constructed in the state was the beginning of this system 
built in 1862 and running from St. Paul to St. Anthony Falls, 


/Is. 



Figure 35. A passenger boat plying between Duluth and Buffalo. Courtesy Grea 

Lakes Transit Corporation. 


a distance of ten miles. To-day, several transcontinental 
lines cross the state and every part of the commonwealth is 
reached by branches. There is a total trackage of 9,300 
miles in Minnesota and 236,000 miles in the United States. 

So important is railroad transportation and so complicated 
is the question of charges, that commissions have been / 
authorized to have oversight of companies acting as common 
carriers. The Minnesota Railroad and Warehouse Commis¬ 
sion has supervision over the rates and service of steam rail¬ 
roads, suburban electric lines, express and telephone com¬ 
panies. The Interstate Commerce Commission is a federal 
body and has charge of common carriers doing a business 













102 


ELEMENTARY CITIZENSHIP 



Figure 36. Latest type of street car with trailer. Courtesy Twin City Rapid. 

Transit Co. 



Figure 37. A late model of a pleasure car. Automobiles have become great 
factors in our commercial and recreational life. Courtesy St. Paul Cadillac Co. 



Figure 39. An aeroplane. Courtesy St. Paul Dispatch. 
































TRANSPORTATION AND COMMUNICATION 103 


between the states. The supervision extends to rail and 
water transportation, express companies, pipe lines, cables, 
telephones and telegraph. 

Other Means of Transportation. Street cars and inter- 
urban lines are frequent. They are a necessity in the city 
and a great convenience to the rural population. There are 
numerous bus lines which make regular trips along the 
principal highways and for long distances, while the private 



Figure 38. Showing interior of a mail car, with clerk distributing the mail. 


automobile, used either for business or pleasure, is found 
almost everywhere in almost endless procession. 

The United States Postal Service. The postal service of 
the United States reaches every nook and corner of the 
country. The “mail carrier” and the “postman” are famil¬ 
iar to every child of the land. There is no community or 
neighborhood which does not have its post office or rural 
free delivery. The constitution of the United States gives 
Congress the exclusive power “to establish post offices and 
post roads.” So the control of the postal system belongs to 
the national government. The cost of operation in excess 
of receipts is paid from federal funds. 














































104 


ELEMENTARY CITIZENSHIP 


Mail is divided into four classes and the rate of postage 
depends upon the classification. First-class matter consists 
of letters, the rate being two cents for each ounce or fraction 
of an ounce. Second-class matter includes newspapers and 
periodicals. The rate is one cent for each four ounces or 
fraction thereof. Publishers receive a special rate on publica¬ 
tions mailed to subscribers. Third-class matter embraces 
circulars and miscellaneous printed matter. The rate is one 
cent for each two ounces or fraction thereof: Fourth-class 
matter is known as parcel post. About everything, except 
letters, periodicals, and circulars are sent by parcel post. 
This includes farm and factory products and books. The 
weight of the package must be limited to seventy pounds. 
The combined length and girth of the package may not 
exceed 84 inches. The parcel post rates depend upon the 
weight of the package and distance to be carried. The 
distance is defined in zones, there being eight zones. 

There are many phases to the government’s postal busi¬ 
ness. Mail may be registered to insure greater care and 
safety in its delivery. Money can be sent by postal money 
orders. A postal savings department is maintained where 
people who prefer to trust their savings to the government 
may deposit their money. 

The growth of the rural mail service has been remarkable. 
For the year 1921, the government appropriated 78 million 
dollars for this service. There were 43,752 routes averaging 
in length 26.6 miles. 

All kinds of vehicles and transportation methods are 
used by the government in collecting, delivering, and trans¬ 
porting mail. The railroads, electric lines, motor trucks, 
boats, and dog sleds are used in the service. The govern¬ 
ment is now experimenting with airplane mail service. 

The postal department of the United States is not operated 
as a commercial enterprise. Frequently the service has cost 
the government more than is received from postage and 


TRANSPORTATION AND COMMUNICATION 


105 


charges. In his annual report for 1921, the Postmaster 
General, who is in charge of the post offices and a member of 
the President’s cabinet, says, “The department should not be 
conducted for profit. Its only purpose should be to serve 
the people fully and efficiently.” In 1921 the government ex¬ 
pended in the postal service $5.90 for each inhabitant while the 
receipts amounted to $4.40 for every man, woman, and child. 

The post office department maintains a Foreign Mail 
Service. Postal relations are established with other countries 
for the exchange of mail. Many countries of the world are 



Figure 40. A modern telegraph office, showing switch boards and latest apparatus 
for sending and receiving messages. Messages are sent by typing them on a 
typewriter, just as letters are written, and received on a responding automatic 
typewriter electrically connected in a distant city. Courtesy Western Union 
Telegraph Co. 

members of the Universal Postal Union. Through this 
agency, citizens of the civilized countries of the world ex¬ 
change ideas; international trade is fostered; and mutual 
understanding among the countries is promoted. 

Other Means of Communication. The first practical 
telephone, the invention of Alexander Graham Bell, was 
exhibited in 1876 at the Centennial Exposition in Philadel¬ 
phia. In less than fifty years the telephone has come to be a 
household necessity and a common means of communication 







106 


ELEMENTARY CITIZENSHIP 



Figure 41. Illustration of a portion of the St. Paul manual telephone switch 
board, where 750 operators handle 750,000 calls a day. Courtesy Tri-State Tele¬ 
phone and Telegraph Co. 


in a community. To-day, one person out of eight in the 
United States has a telephone. There is, therefore, a tele¬ 
phone for every two families. 

The telegraph and ocean cables are used to carry messages 
to all parts of the world. The railroads commonly use the 



Figure 42. Illustration of an automatic telephone system, the most modern 
method of making connections without the aid of any operator. Courtesy Tri- 
State Telephone and Telegraph Co. 


























TRANSPORTATION AND COMMUNICATION 107 



telegraph to dispatch and direct trains on their systems, al¬ 
though the telephone is coming more into use for this purpose. 

Both the telephone and the telegraph require a line of 
copper wire in their operation. But the “wireless” is coming 
into operation and use. Not only the “wireless” is used to 
communicate with moving ships and in army operation, but 

the “radio” is being installed in 
many homes. By means of a radio 
receiving “set” one can catch from 
the air, or ether, messages from dif¬ 
ferent sending stations. These send¬ 
ing stations broadcast market re¬ 
ports, lectures on business, enter¬ 
tainments of music and fun and 
the news of the world. The develop¬ 
ment of methods of communication 
is truly wonderful. It sounds like a 
fairy story. 

Weather Reports. The develop¬ 
ment of means of communication 
makes possible information in regard 
to weather conditions in various 
parts of the United States. The 
weather Bureau at Washington, D. 
C., receives reports twice each day 
from stations scattered throughout 
the country. On the basis of these 
reports forecasts are made of weather 
conditions. These forecasts are pub¬ 
lished in the daily papers and posted 
places. These predictions concern¬ 
ing winds, storms, and frosts are of great value to farmers 
and shippers. 

A United People. A united people must be one in lan¬ 
guage, one in its thoughts and one in ideals. There must be a 


'Figure 43. Radiola Grand, a 
late model of a radio receiving 
apparatus. St. Paul Electric Co. 

as bulletins in public 




108 


ELEMENTARY CITIZENSHIP 


common understanding of the principles of the American 
government and the responsibility of its citizens. By means 
of intercourse people come to understand each other and 
community spirit is developed. The friendly spirit of the 
local neighborhood is extended to the bigger community of 
the state, the nation, and even the world. Only as one is.a 
worthy citizen of a small community can one learn to be a 
helpful member of the large group. The friendly neighborly 
spirit must begin at home and grow in its outlook and out¬ 
reach. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Chamberlain, James Franklin. How We Travel. The MacMillan 
Company, 1919. 

Du Puy, W. A. Uncle Sam’s Modern Miracles. Frederick A. Stokes 
Company, 1914. Has chapters on such topics as revealing weather 
secrets, smoothing the nation’s roads, and mail distribution. 
Kendall and Koehler. Radio Simplified. John C. Winston Co., 1921 . 

Tells what it is and how to build and operate the apparatus. 
Ravenel, Samuel W. Ravenel’s Road Primer for School Children. A. 
C. McClurg Co., 1912. 

Rocheleau, W. F. Great American Industries, fourth book, Transporta¬ 
tion. A. Flanagan Company, 1914. 

Tappan, Eva March. Industrial readers book IV. Travelers and 
traveling. Houghton Mifflin & Co., 1916. 

Verrill, A. Hyatt. The Home Radio. How to Make and Use It. 
Harper and Brothers, 1922. 

TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION AND INVESTIGATION 

1. Draw a map indicating the original boundary of Minnesota. 
On this map trace the Red River Trail; locate Mendota, Pembina, 
Marine-on-the-St. Croix, Stillwater, Minneapolis. 

2. Trace the route by which news reached Minnesota from Wash¬ 
ington in 1849. 

3. Compare the present population of Minneapolis and Stillwater 
with that of the three other places mentioned above. Account for the 
difference in growth. Compare the population of Minnesota to-day 
with that of 1849. 

4. Make a list of ways in which life in your community differs 
from that of the pioneer settlements. Make a list of the improvements 
in living during your lifetime. 


TRANSPORTATION AND COMMUNICATION 109 


5. Do you live in an urban or rural community? Study the history 
of your community under the following headings: When, by whom, 
and why it was settled? How it received its name? Early and present 
occupations. Growth in population. If you live in the country, for 
what distinctive thing does your community stand? What things 
must be done in common by the people to develop a community? 
Explain the ways in which the people of your community are working 
together as good neighbors. Can you suggest ways to improve their 
co-operation? 

6. Make a list of the things you eat and wear for which your 
community is dependent upon other communities. For what are other 
communities dependent upon your community? 

7. How have railroads, good roads, and communication affected the 
life of farmers? of the farmers’ children? the growth of your community? 

8. Compare the benefits received from good roads by the city? by 
the country? 

9. What is the meaning of interstate trunk highways? Send to 
the Commissioner of Highways, St. Paul, for a map of the proposed 
trunk highways for the state. Study Minnesota’s good-roads plan 
under the following heads: Kinds of road; width; by whom located; 
by whom built; by whom cared for; cost of a mile of hard surfaced road; 
official signs. What part of the cost of trunk roads is borne by the 
government? Why? By auto and truck owners? Figure the tax on 
any popular make of auto for the past year. 

, 10. Who pays for county and township roads? What amount was 
expended by your community last year for road building? Compare 
the road tax for these roads in your community with your school tax. 
Who has control of these roads in your community? 

11. Compare the per cents of urban and rural populations in 1880 
and 1920. Explain the drift of population to the cities. Compare the 
number of people engaged in farming in 1880 and 1920. 

12. How do the principles for the growth of cities differ from those 
for the growth of rural communities? 

13. Explain Mr. Hill’s statement as given under topic “National 
Highways.” How did state and government help railroad construction 
in Minnesota in early days? Name and locate railroads in Minne¬ 
sota engaged in interstate commerce; in transcontinental commerce. 

14. Compare the duties of the Minnesota Railroad and Warehouse 
Commission with those of the Interstate Commerce Commission. To 
whom is each commission responsible? Why should express companies, 
the wireless and telephones and telegraphs be under federal and state 
supervision? 


110 


ELEMENTARY CITIZENSHIP 


15. What are the regulations for wireless? Why needed? The 
Department of Commerce, Washington, D. C., will furnish information 
upon request. Do you think the telephone, telegraph, and wireless 
should be under the same government control as are the mails? 

16. Tell how to send a message; register, insure or send mail by parcel 
post; make out a money order; telegraph money. 

17. How are post offices classified? What is the classification of the 
office where you get mail? How is the postmaster chosen? How many 
rural routes are there in connection with the local post office? How are 
rural mail carriers chosen? What are their duties? What regulations 
must they obey? Should the postal service be self-supporting? What 
was the total cost to the government for postal service last year? 

18. How does the work of the Weather Bureau help farmers and 
shippers? 

19. Explain how without transportation and communication we 
could not be a united people, one in language, one in thoughts, and one 
in ideals. 


CHAPTER VIII 


WORK, WEALTH, AND PROSPERITY 

Ill fares the land, to hastening ills a prey, 

Where wealth accumulates, and men decay. 

■—Oliver Goldsmith in Deserted Village 

Getting and Spending Wealth. The science of wealth- 
getting and wealth-spending is called economics. How to 
acquire wealth honestly and spend it wisely is the personal 
concern of every good citizen. The study of economics is a 
part of every high-school course. Some of the principles of 
economics should be understood and practiced by pupils in 
the elementary grades. The word economics came from two 
Greek words meaning “home management” and referred to 
the business of supplying the family wants and keeping with¬ 
in the income. To-day, this science deals with the way in 
which material resources are developed and made to supply 
the desires of individuals, of society, and of the state. Ma¬ 
terial things desired, and secured with effort, are wealth. 
Lands and houses are wealth: so, too, are the tools of the 
mechanic, the implements of the farmer, the utensils of the 
kitchen, the books of the student, and the playthings of the 
child. Wealth may be produced and stored to be used 
when needed. Civilized man has learned to insure himself 
against want through the accumulation of goods, or wealth. 
Wheat in the bin, coal in the basement, goods on the mer¬ 
chants’ shelves are forms of wealth which are ready to relieve 
want. The welfare of a people depends partly upon the 
material comforts essential to life and well-being. The old 
English word “weal,” from which wealth is derived, means 
well-being. The prosperity of a nation depends upon an 


112 


ELEMENTARY CITIZENSHIP 


economic system in which all members have a fair chance 
through work and sacrifice to secure for themselves and 
society the economic goods necessary for their well-being. 

Robinson Crusoe’s System of Economics. Shipwrecked, 
Robinson Crusoe was cast upon an uninhabited island. The 
sole survivor from the stranded ship, he began to take account 
of his resources and plan for his well-being. The story tells 
how Crusoe worked, accumulated wealth, and became in a 
measure prosperous. Let us consider how Crusoe supplied 
his wants and desires. His needs were immediate and 
urgent. Chief among these, was the desire for protection, 





Figure 44. A Minnesota farm scene. Minnesota is one of the greatest wheat pro¬ 
ducing states in the Union. 


food, shelter, and clothing. There were three factors which 
helped him to produce the material things to supply his needs. 

1. Nature was kind to Crusoe. The mild climate was in 
his favor. If the weather had been bitterly cold when he 
reached land, he would have perished the first night. Nature, 
too, provided the tree in whose friendly branches he spent the 
first night, the bubbling spring of fresh water where he satis¬ 
fied his thirst, and the opening in the rock which gave him 
shelter. An exploration of the island revealed many gifts of 
nature which could be utilized. There were wild grapes to 
be dried and preserved as raisins, goats for milk and meat, trees 
for posts and lumber, and fertile soil on which to grow grain. 














WORK , WEALTH, AND PROSPERITY 


113 


2. Crusoe was industrious. He worked every day. He 
did more than just provide for his daily wants; he began to 
lay by stores for the future. He planted his grain and saved 
the harvest. He cared for his flock of goats and it increased. 
Crusoe not only worked hard, but he planned his work care¬ 
fully. He was a thoughtful worker and made his efforts 
count. He had a reason and a purpose in his work. Crusoe 
was a careful man and did not waste his supplies; he was 
thrifty. He carefully divided his gunpowder and placed it 
where it would not get wetoraccidentallyexplode. He did not 
waste his powder, and made his clothes last as long as possible. 
Finally, this man did his work so well that he got plea,sure 
out of his lonesome job. He took pride in his workmanship. 

3. Crusoe made use of tools and implements, some of 
them rescued from the ship and some laboriously fashioned 
with his own hands. He sought to make his well-being more 
assured by using some of his wealth in improved methods of 
supplying his wants. He hewed a shovel from a piece of 
hard wood. Weary days were spent in enclosing with a 
fence a pasture for the goats. The fence helped Crusoe to 
catch the goats to milk them and to kill them for food. He 
turned potter and shaped clay into pots and jars and hardened 
them with fire. These vessels made possible a better method 
of cooking. Crusoe felt that the sacrifices he made to secure 
these implements and improvements were worth while. He 
no longer was dependent upon chance for his food supply. 
His tools and equipment made his living fairly secure; he 
was prosperous. 

All the time the wealth of Crusoe was being consumed and 
destroyed. Food was eaten, the supply of gunpowder was 
gradually exhausted, and his clothing wore out. By careful 
habits of management he regulated the consumption of his 
wealth, but he could not prevent its destruction. Not only 
were Crusoe’s goods destroyed through their use, but time 
produced destruction. His meats spoiled in the warm cli- 


114 


ELEMENTARY CITIZENSHIP 


mate, his tools rusted, and wood and timbers rotted. Crusoe 
planned to produce goods to replace those consumed. His 
prosperity depended upon getting wealth as well as spending 
it wisely. 

Factors in a Primitive Economic System. Robinson 
Crusoe lived in a very primitive fashion. He provided for 
his own household, which consisted of himself, two cats, a 
parrot and, later, his man Friday. A family in colonial or 



Figure 45. A Minnesota open-pit iron mine. Minnesota furnishes almost two 
thirds of the iron mined in the United States. 


pioneer days lived in much the same primitive way. Each 
family produced for its own consumption food, clothing, and 
shelter. The economic methods of getting wealth and spend¬ 
ing wealth are simple. 

The first problem is the getting of wealth. The process 
by which wealth is acquired is called production. Without 
production wants can not be supplied. Only as production 
exceeds consumption is it possible for wealth to accumulate. 
Prosperity depends upon the accumulation of durable goods. 
There are three factors in the problem of production. 









WORK, WEALTH, AND PROSPERITY 


115 


/. Land or natural resources. Just as Crusoe depended 
upon nature, so man everywhere depends upon the land and 
natural resources as the first and prime element in production. 
Land, forests, and streams, with their wild life of fish, birds, 
and animals, and quarries and mines all contribute to the 
production of wealth. Property rights to valuable natural 
resources are eagerly sought by men. The farmer selects his 
land with regard to the fertility of the soil and the climatic 
conditions. The cruiser searches for valuable timber, while 
the prospector hunts for evidence of mineral deposits. 



Figure 46. Great Northern Power Co. dam at Thompson—a source of great power. 


The resources of Crusoe’s island were so abundant that 
little care had to be taken to protect them. As a country 
develops and population grows, land becomes scarce. It is, 
therefore, necessary to protect natural resources to con¬ 
serve fertility and to carry on an intensive cultivation. 
The preservation of natural resources for economic use is 
called conservation. 

2. Labor. The second factor in production is human 
effort. The prosperity of a nation depends not only upon 
the natural resources but also upon the industry, intelligence, 






116 


ELEMENTARY CITIZENSHIP 


and integrity of the people. There are four groups of useful 
occupations: (1) the extractive industries of hunting, fishing, 
lumbering, and mining; (2) the genetic industries which in¬ 
clude growing of crops and animal husbandry; (3) manufactur¬ 
ing and trading; and (4) personal and professional services as 
teaching, preaching, and healing. 

The efficiency of labor depends upon the training, skill, 
and intelligence of the workers. To contribute to the pros¬ 
perity of a people, laborers must possess moral qualities. 
They must be honest, courteous, courageous in the right, 
willing to co-operate for the common good, and loyal to 
ideals and principles. 

3. Capital. A third factor in the production of wealth is 
capital. A portion of wealth set aside to help in the produc¬ 
tion of more wealth is called capital. The getting of capital 
requires sacrifice and saving. A mowing machine, a truck 
used in the dray business, and money loaned, represent 
capital. Capital is always used in acquiring more wealth. 
To be a capitalist, then, one must save and also invest his 
savings in some productive enterprise. Many school boys 
are capitalists, because they have saved some wealth and then 
set it to earning more wealth. This prudence is called thrift. 

The second problem in a primitive economic system is 
wealth-spending. This is called consumption. The process 
of consumption may be rapid or slow. Food is immediately 
consumed, clothes wear out gradually while a machine may 
last for years. It is evident, that, if consumption exceeds 
production for any length of time, want and poverty will 
result. During a great war there is much destruction of 
property, production is reduced, and consumption is great. 
War, therefore, destroys the prosperity of a country. 

The ability to spend wealth wisely is an accomplishment. 
It can be acquired by study and practice. There are two 
things to remember, (1) spend for those things which are 
durable and (2) spend for things which are wholesome. It 


WORK, WEALTH, AND PROSPERITY 


117 


is not possible to satisfy all our wants or desires; neither 
would it be wise to do so if it were possible. Self-control and 
restraint must be exercised. The practice of these virtues is 
called temperance. 

System of Economics in an Industrially Developed 
Society. The most significant thing in an industrial country 
is the development of machinery and the production of 
economic goods by a factory system. In the primitive 
system, man is a Jaek-of-all-trades; in the industrial system, 
he does a special kind work. He no longer produces every¬ 
thing that he needs, but he produces a few things or a single 
thing. In order to supply his wants, he must exchange his 
products for others that he needs and can use. This speciali¬ 
zation of effort is called “division of labor.” Men follow 
different occupations: some are farmers, some carpenters, 
some plumbers, and some blacksmiths. The division of 
labor becomes even more specialized and a workman per¬ 
forms only one operation in a manufacturing process. The 
shoemaker formerly cut, sewed, and made shoes. To-day 
the making of a shoe is a process on which many men work. 
Industrial development and the large-scale production of 
goods by factory methods give rise to several economic 
problems. The more specialized the labor, the more complex 
the economic system becomes. 

In a highly developed society, wants and desires are in¬ 
creased. The primary wants of food, shelter, and clothing 
still exist, but society creates other desires. There is an 
inclination to demand things for luxury and ostentation. 
Wealth has a recognized influence in business, in politics, 
and in society; so it is desired for its power. The individual 
wants to maintain his social standing with the group. He 
wants to dress in the prevailing styles. He wants to live in 
accordance with the standards of living of his associates. 

Exchange of Goods. Crusoe had to supply his wants 
through his own production. He had no opportunity to 


118 


ELEMENTARY CITIZENSHIP 



exchange goods. No doubt he would have been glad to 
exchange some of his goats for clothing suited to his needs. 
People who live in communities where a division of labor is 
practiced must exchange the products of their industry for 
the products of other communities. There are thus developed 
systems of transportation, trade, and commerce. The prod¬ 
ucts on the breakfast table of the average family represent 
industries scattered throughout the world. These articles 
of food find their way to the consumer’s house over various 


Figure 47. Part of the Duluth docks used for the loading of iron ore. 

transportation routes. And the producers of these things 
receive in exchange goods which meet their needs. Wants, 
then, are largely supplied through exchange. Society has 
organized governments and enacted laws which promote the 
free exchange of commodities and prohibit fraud and violence 
as methods of securing goods. 

Value of Goods. A thing has value when some one 
wants it and is willing to make a sacrifice to get it. A boy 
comes to school with one pocket filled with round pebbles 
picked up on the near-by lake shore and another pocket filled 








WORK, WEALTH, AND PROSPERITY 


119 


with agate marbles. He wants to exchange either the 
pebbles or marbles for other things. No one wants the 
pebbles: they have no value in the trading market of the 
school. Several boys want marbles: they have a value. 
The lack of value for pebbles may be explained by the fact 
(1) that they are of no use and (2) that they are so common. 
The value of the marbles, on the other hand, is explained by 
(1) their utility and (2) their scarcity. If an article is scarce, 
the supply is limited: if it is useful there is a demand for it. 
Supply and demand are the factors which determine value. 
An increase in the demand or a decrease in the supply of a 
commodity tends to increase the value of that article. 
Demand for a product may be increased by opening up new 
markets. The supply of certain articles is limited by nature, 
but the supply of others may be increased by right methods of 
production. The table below shows the records of egg pro¬ 
duction on two Minnesota farms. If the production of eggs 
is generally low in January, this scarcity of supply will 
result in a greater value for fresh eggs in that month. 

Production of Eggs on Two Minnesota Farms in 1922. 


January.... 
February.. . 

March. 

April. 

May.. 

June. 

July. 

August. 

September.. 
October 
November.. 
December. . 


Flock A 

75 hens 

Flock B 

260 hens 

966 

2,202 

825 

1,734 

910 

3,401 

1,400 

5,118 

1,308 

5,446 

927 

4,881 

882 

4,690 

816 

3,697 

314 

2,163 

233 

1,692 

466 

1,701 

720 

1,678 


Money As a Medium of Exchange. In primitive times, 
exchange was effected by means of barter. The savage 
bartered his furs for beads and blankets. This method of 





















120 


ELEMENTARY CITIZENSHIP 


exchange is uncertain. The savage with a bear skin to ex¬ 
change may have difficulty in finding any one who wants 
such a skin and is prepared to give in trade the right sort of 
blanket. Early in the industrial development of people 
markets were established and a standard of value accepted. 
With the pastoral people of Bible times, value was reckoned 
by heads of cattle. The word capital means head and goes 
back in its derivation to the time when values were counted 
in “heads.” In the early days of this Northwest the fur trade 
was the sole commercial enterprise carried on. In those 
days the muskrat skin was the standard of value. For the 
convenience of people money has been devised as a standard 
of value and medium of exchange. 

There are certain characteristics of good money, (1) 
intrinsic value, (2) durability, (3) readily carried, (4) easily 
recognized. Under the Constitution of the United States, 
Congress has power “to coin money, regulate the value 
thereof and of foreign coin.” At the present time the money 
standard is gold. The gold dollar weighs 25.8 grains. It is 
9 parts fine gold and 1 part alloy. Both coins and paper 
money are authorized for circulation. The following are the 
different kinds of money, each having a value relative to the 
standard gold dollar. 


/. Coin 

Gold: eagle, double eagle. 
Silver: dime, quarter, half, 
dollar. 

2. Paper 

Gold certificates. 

Silver certificates. 
Treasury notes. 


Nickel: 5 cents. 
Bronze: 1 cent. 


National bank notes. 

Federal reserve notes. 
Federal Reserve Bank notes. 
United States notes (greenbacks). 

A careful reading of the inscription on paper money 
shows that the government will exchange this currency for 
gold or silver. The silver in turn can be exchanged for gold, 


WORK, WEALTH, AND PROSPERITY 


m 


and any holder of paper money in the United States can 
get gold for it, if he wishes and requests it. 

Transaction of Business on Credit. Much of the business 
of the country is transacted on credit, principally through 
banks. It is estimated that 50% of the transactions in the 
retail trade are based upon checks or other credit instru¬ 
ments, while in the wholesale trade 90% of the business is 
credit in some form. A bank is an institution which deals 
in notes, checks, orders, bills of exchange, and other instru¬ 
ments of credit. Both national and state banks do a general 
banking business with people. They are chartered under 
national and state laws, but they are commercial enterprises, 
organized by private individuals for profit. The national 
banks are permitted to issue bank notes while state banks 
are not. Banks are useful (1) as a convenience in the 
exchange of goods, (2) as a source of reserve wealth which 
can be drawn upon in times of emergency and crisis. 

The stability and flexibility of the money market of the 
country was strengthened by the establishment in 1913 of 
Federal Reserve Banks. The country was divided into 
twelve districts and a Reserve Bank located in each district. 
Minneapolis was selected as the location for the bank in the 
Ninth Federal Reserve district, which includes Montana, 
North Dakota, South Dakota, Minnesota and northern parts 
of Wisconsin and Michigan. A Federal Reserve Bank does 
no business with private individuals, but it helps to make 
money and credit available to the commercial banks when 
crops must be moved or an emergency exists. 

Distribution of the Products of Industry. The products 
of industry in a highly developed society result from the 
collective effort of many individuals. The prosperity of a 
country requires an economic system, so organized that the 
income from the products shall be distributed in a way to 
promote the general well-being of society. There are four 
claims to a share in the division of products: 


122 


ELEMENTARY CITIZENSHIP 


/. Land and natural resources as one of the factors in produc¬ 
tion are entitled to a share in products. The price paid for 
the use of land is called rent. As lands become scarce, 
rents become high and the value of the land increases. 

2. Labor as the second factor in production must have its 
share which is distributed in the form of wages. Wages 
depend upon the principle of demand and supply. Wages 
will be high when the demand is strong or the supply scarce. 
There is always a demand for intelligent labor, skilled in the 
work of specific trades or occupations. There is often an 
over-supply of common unskilled labor. The laborer puts 
his services upon the market as any commodity is placed on 
the market. He is free to bargain his services for the highest 
wage possible. Since an individual is at a disadvantage in 
bargaining for his services, laborers have grouped them¬ 
selves together in unions and federations. These organiza¬ 
tions bargain with employers for the services of their mem¬ 
bers. This method is called collective bargaining. Some¬ 
times strikes are declared by labor unions and lock-outs 
established by employers to enforce favorable terms in wage 
bargaining. 

3. Capitals share in production is called interest. It is 
the income which goes to the owner of capital whether he 
uses it in his own business or lends it to somebody else. 

4. The government demands a share of the products of 
industry in the form of taxes. Business must be carried on 
under fair competition and free bargaining. The getting of 
wealth by violence and fraud must be suppressed. Govern¬ 
ment is the organization of society for the regulation and 
control of methods of getting, distributing, and spending 
wealth. Governmental expenses are paid through the 
revenue from taxes. Since governments are maintained in 
the interest of society, it is just that society should be taxed 
for their support. The problems of taxation, however, are 
intricate and difficult. 


WORK, WEALTH, AND PROSPERITY 


123 


Minnesota’s Resources. Minnesota is principally an agri¬ 
cultural state. It is noted, however, for its manufacture of 
flour and lumber industry. Among its most valuable assets 
are its extensive' mines of iron ore and manganese. In 
1919 the total value of all its manufactured products was 
more than $1,540,000,000. At the same time the value of 
all agricultural products, such as crops, live stock, poultry, 
and dairy products, exceeded $600,000,000. There are, ac¬ 
cording to the 1920 census 1,229,179 dairy cows in the state 
and 2,380,862 swine. The figures given for a few of the 
principal crops are shown below. 


Corn 

bu. 

Wheat 

bu. 

Oats 

bu. 

Hay 

tons 

Potatoes 

bu. 

Barley 

bu. 

84,786,096 

37,616,384 

89,108,151 

9,291,671 

26,690,056 

14,849,069 


Wealth and the Integrity of a People. The accumulation 
of wealth through industry and thrift is commendable. 
Wealth rightly and wisely used is a blessing. The material 
things may be made to minister to man’s intellectual and 
spiritual well-being, and the gaining of wealth is a game 
which calls into play all the moral and spiritual qualities 
which a man possesses. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Carver, Thomas Nixon. Elementary Economics. Ginn & Company, 
1920. The principles upon which national prosperity rest are 
clearly stated. The book is written for high-school pupils. May 
be used for reference by grade pupils. 

Hughes, R. O. Community Civics, Allyn & Bacon, 1917. Treats of 
money and credits, lands, labor and industry and wages as well as 
community life and welfare. 

TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION AND INVESTIGATION 

1. Make a careful outline of this chapter. 

2. What is the meaning of wealth? Of material things? How does 
wealth differ from capital? List other forms of wealth than those given 
in the chapter. 

3. What material things are essential to life and well-being? 













124 


ELEMENTARY CITIZENSHIP 


4. How can you promote the wealth of your family even though 
you do not produce any wealth? How do the people of your community 
spend their wealth? Illustrate what you regard as wise expenditures. 
Which is the more important economically, wealth-getting or wealth¬ 
spending? 

5. Show why civilized races prosper more than do savage races. 
Illustrate by the lives of Crusoe and Friday. 

6. Determine whether the world owes a man a living or a right to 
make a living. 

7. Make a family budget that you think would show wise wealth¬ 
spending for a family of two adults and two children, one a boy of eight, 
the other a girl of fourteen, when the father earns $1,800 a year. 

Suggestions: Consider a list of the things for which the head of a 
family should spend money. 

8. Explain and illustrate how the following are factors in product ion: 
labor; land; capital; nature. 

9. In what respects are the factors in a primitive economic system 
similar to those of an industrially developed system? In what respects 
do they differ? Explain which more closely resembles the primitive 
economic life; the city or the country. 

10. Make a list of the natural resources of your neighborhood or 
city. How could more resources be provided? 

Suggestions: Consider the waste land, crops, waterpower, mining, 
waste in industry, measures taken by the government and state to 
safeguard and regulate the natural resources of the state. Why should 
the state and government be interested in conservation? 

11. Why is land so great a factor in the production of wealth? Upon 
what does the value of land depend? Compare the number of people 
employed in agriculture and in industry. Compare the land value 
with the value of various industries. Explain how education of the 
farmer would prevent waste of crops and increase the production. 

12. Show that the efficiency of labor depends upon the skill and the 
intelligence of the workers. How many of the unemployed people in 
your community are skilled? unskilled? 

13. What good habits are you learning in school? What habits do 
you as an individual need to make you a good producer of wealth? 
How much money did you earn last year? How many hours of labor 
did you exchange for it? 

14. Name some “blind alley” jobs in your community. Why are 
young people advised not to seek such jobs? Illustrate what kinds of 
employments or occupations offer the best opportunities for the future? 
Why are there different wages for different classes of labor or oecupa- 


WORK, WEALTH, AND PROSPERITY 


125 


tions? Should women get a smaller wage than men for the same work? 

15. Make a list of the occupations of your community. Put them 
under the headings extractive, genetic, manufacturing or trading, 
personal, and professional. Consult the dictionary for the meaning of 
extractive and genetic. Determine as far as possible the preparation 
or training needed for the more common of these. How will education 
add to the wealth of your labor? 

16. Tell what you understand by division of labor; collective bar¬ 
gaining; open shop; strike; boycott. Show how the dependence of 
people upon one another is greatly increased by division of labor. 

17. To what extent does your family and your community depend 
upon distant places and foreign lands for food, clothing, tools, or equip¬ 
ment? 

18. Study the regulations of the state for protecting the labor of 
boys, girls, and women and explain how the state conserves its wealth 
by so doing. Why is an untrained man a poor asset for the community 
or state? 

19. Study the effect of labor unions upon wages, living conditions, 
hours of work, child labor, safety restrictions, workmen’s compensation. 

20. Show how the public as well as employers and employees is 
injured by a strike. What are some of the methods that are employed 
at present to prevent strikes ? 

21. Explain in your own way how the distribution of wealth is the ' 
cause of many labor disputes. To what extent should each of the 
following share in the distribution of wealth? capital; government. 

22. What determines the value of goods? Illustrate. When would 
a gallon of water have value? When not? Illustrate what these 
statements mean to you. “An increase in the supply of a commodity 
tends to decrease the value of the article.” “The supply of certain 
articles is limited by nature, but the supply of others may be increased 
by right production.” * 

23. What is meant by a monopoly control of a certain product? 
Mention some things so controlled. What has the government done to 
determine the value of the product in such cases? 

24. Trace the history of barter from savagery to the adoption of 
money. Note: Read Lessons in Community and National Life, 
Series C. Lesson 21. Before Coins Were Made. 

25. Study the coining and printing of money that you may be in¬ 
formed on the following topics: Where gold and silver coins, pennies, 
and nickels are minted; to what extent pennies and nickels are legal 
tender; where paper money is made; by whom issued; how safeguarded 
from counterfeiting; what determines its value; why there is so much 


126 


ELEMENTARY CITIZENSHIP 


more paper money in circulation than gold or silver; what becomes of 
mutilated or worn bills? 

26. Make a list of the different kinds of government coins and of 
paper money in circulation in the United States. Read the inscriptions 
on various kinds of paper currency. 

27. Why should money-making be a function of the government 
rather than of the states? 

28. What led to the establishing of the National Banking Act of the 
Civil War? To the establishing of the Federal Reserve Bank? Explain 
how the establishing of the Federal Reserve Bank led to the strengthening 
of the stability and flexibility of the money market. 

29. Explain the difference between a state bank and a national 
bank. What types of banks are there in your community? How does 
the national bank get the money it issues? 

30. Illustrate how you would deposit money, write a check, cash a 
check, buy a draft. 

31. Which do you think is the most intemperate, to waste money or 
to waste one’s strength? 


CHAPTER IX 


THE MAKING OF AN AMERICAN CITIZEN 

Righteousness exalteth a nation: but sin is a 
reproach to any people. —Proverbs 

“The Man without a Country.” Every school pupil is 
familiar with Edward Everett Hale’s story of “The Man 
without a Country.” Our sympathies go out to Philip Nolan 
in his exile from his native land, although his banishment 
was the result of his own disloyalty. A fledgling fallen from 
the nest, a lamb lost to the shepherd and the sheepfold, a 
child without a home, a man without a country, excite 
sympathy and concern. Every individual is a member of 
several social groups. Membership in these groups brings 
duties and responsibilities as well as protection and rewards. 
The best homes are governed by rules and regulations: a 
country is governed by laws. To refuse to obey the rules of 
the home or the laws of the land is to be disobedient and 
disloyal. Happiness is to be found through worthy member¬ 
ship in the home, the school, the church, the community, 
and the country. A worthy member is considerate of others, 
sets the right example, is unselfish in service, and cultivates 
the friendly spirit. The greatness of the United States is to 
be measured not in its extent of territory, not in its wealth of 
iron mines, wheat fields, pine forests, and industrial plants, 
but in the character and spirit of its citizens. 

A Citizen of the United States. Just as clubs and organi¬ 
zations have requirements for membership, so the United 
States has certain requirements for citizenship. The con¬ 
stitution of the United States (Amendment XIV) declares 
“All persons born or naturalized in the United States are 


128 


ELEMENTARY CITIZENSHIP 


citizens of the United States and of the state wherein they 
reside.” There are, then, two classes of citizens, (1) those 
who are citizens by birth, and (2) those who become citizens 
by a process of adoption called naturalization. In their 
rights there is no distinction between native-born and 
naturalized foreign-born. The same loyalty and service is 
demanded of each. Citizenship is not determined by ages. 
The baby in the cradle or the child in school may be a citizen. 

The process by which a foreigner becomes a citizen is 
interesting. As the first step, the alien makes a “declara¬ 
tion of intention” to become a citizen. This is called taking 
out “first papers.” This declaration can not be made until 
the alien has reached eighteen years of age. The second 
step and the completion of naturalization occurs at least 
two years and not more than seven years after taking out 
first papers. The alien appears in court and is examined by 
the judge as to his knowledge and interest in the American 
government. If this test is satisfactory, the alien is given 
his naturalization papers and becomes a citizen. In order to 
be made a citizen, the alien must show: 

1. That he has taken out his “first papers.” 

2. That he has lived in the United States continually for 
five years. 

3. That he is twenty-one years of age. 

4. That he is able to speak the English language and 
write his own name. 

5. That he has been a resident of the state in which 
naturalization is sought for one year immediately preceding 
the filing of the petition of citizenship. 

Then he must renounce citizenship in the country from 
which he comes and swear to support the constitution and 
laws of the United States. 

The process of naturalization is the same for a woman as 
for a man. An alien woman, however, who marries an 
American citizen after September 22, 1922, or whose husband 


MAKING OF AN AMERICAN CITIZEN 


129 


is naturalized after that date, may petition for naturalization 
without making the declaration of intention and need prove 
residence of only one year in the United States immediately 
preceding her petition. 

When a father, or a mother in case she is head of a family, 
becomes a citizen, all the minor children are admitted to 
citizenship by that act. 

Intelligent Co-operation of Citizens for the Common 
Welfare. The United States is one large community. Its 
citizens are bound together not by the arbitrary force of a 
despotic government but by the common interests and com¬ 
mon ideals of the citizens. People must learn to think, 
respect the honest judgment of others, plan together and 
act for the good of all, that is, co-operate. The home, the 
school, and the playground offer opportunities for co-opera¬ 
tion. Unless the young citizen has learned how to work with 
people and for a common cause while he is still in the grades 
or common school, he has missed an important life lesson. 

In a country where the inhabitants are widely scattered 
and represent many races and occupations, a strong spirit of 
co-operation is the result of the combined effort of many 
citizens. America has sometimes been called the “Melting 
Pot,” because here the principles of government and the 
ideals of citizenship are being worked out by people from 
many lands. The future greatness of America will depend 
upon the character of the citizens who are now students in 
the schools of the land. The table on the following page 
suggests some of the problems which confront the people of 
Minnesota and the United States in their effort to develop 
an intelligent, patriotic, and righteous nation. 

It is apparent that many citizens are of foreign birth, 
while vast numbers of pupils in our schools are the children 
of foreign-born parents. In the molding of these we have a 
great problem, a great responsibility, and yet a great oppor¬ 
tunity. The school must develop their ideals of citizenship. 

9 


130 


ELEMENTARY CITIZENSHIP 


Facts in Regard to Population Shown by 1920 Census 



United States 

Minnesota 

White population. 

94,820,915 

2,368,936 

Negro.;. 

10,463,131 

8,809 

Indian. 

244,437 

8,761 

Chinese. 

61,639 

508 

Japanese. 

111,010 

85 

Other races. 

9,488 

26 

Total. 

105,710,620 

2,387,125 

Native white. 

81,108,161 

1,882,772 

Foreign-born. 

13,712,754 

486,164 

Urban. 

54,304,603 

1,051,593 

Rural. 

Population 10 years of age and 

51,406,017 

1,335,532 

over. 

Illiterates 10 years of age and 

82,739,315 

1,877,132 

over. 

Population 21 years of age and 

4,931,905 (6%) 

34,487 (1.8%) 

over. 

Illiterates 21 years of age and 

60,886,520 

1,380,834 

over. 

4,333,111 (1.7%) 

32,869 (2.4%) 


The intelligent co-operation of citizens is needed in the 
solution of great national problems. Among these problems 
may be mentioned the conservation and development of 
(1) the natural resources, (2) the nation’s health, (3) a system 
of public education, (4) a happy home life, and (5) moral 
strength. Many phases of these problems have already been 
mentioned, but each will be briefly discussed. 

Conservation of Natural Resources. The earth is a great 
storehouse of materials which satisfy human wants. From 
the earth come such raw materials as stone, timber, clay, 
metals, and minerals. The earth is the source of power use¬ 
ful to man. Wind, water, coal, wood, gas, and crude oil are 
natural resources. Food, which gives strength and power to 
the body, has its source in the fertility^ of the earth. Many of 
these resources have been wasted or depleted. It is estimated 
that the coal in the United States will be exhausted in one 
hundred fifty years; iron ore in fifty years; the precious 
metals and copper, lead, and zinc in one to three centuries. 
The acreage of tillable farm land can be increased, swamps 
























MAKING OF AN AMERICAN CITIZEN 


131 


can be reclaimed and desert land irrigated. Land now under 
cultivation does not yield its maximum on account of pre¬ 
ventable erosion, the waste of fertilizer, and plant diseases. 
Forests not only grow timber but conserve the soil and give 
protection from the winds and heat of the sun. Forests 
have been depleted at an enormous rate in the United States. 

When Theodore Roosevelt was president of the United 
States, he appointed a commission on national conservation. 
This commission in its report said that there have been three 
stages in the development of the natural resources of the 
United States: 

1. That of individual enterprise for personal and family 
benefit which led to the conquest of the wilderness. In this 
period the resources received no thought. 

2. That of collective enterprise for benefit of communi¬ 
ties and profit of individuals. In this stage, industrial centers 
and great monopolies were developed. The natural resources 
were wasted. 

3. That on which we are entering, in which enterprise is 
collective and co-operative and should be directed toward 
benefit of communities and people generally. 

There is need for accurate information and an awakened 
public sentiment toward the necessity for conservation. 

The Health of a People. The conservation of human 
resources makes for prosperity and happiness. This con¬ 
servation, through the prevention of disease and accidents 
and by increasing the vitality of the people and prolonging 
human life, is a great national problem. Through the 
application of the principles of sanitation and hygiene, 
human life can be prolonged. In India the average length 
of a human life is less than twenty-five years; in Sweden, it is 
over fifty years; in Massachusetts, it is forty-five years. In 
Europe the span of life has been doubled in three and a half 
centuries. In Massachusetts, the span of human life is 
increasing at the rate of fourteen years per century. 


132 


ELEMEN TAR \ ’ Cl TJ ZEN SHIR 


In the United States, the economic loss of time and money, 
to say nothing of the distress and sorrows, due to sickness 
is very great. It is estimated that there are three million 
people seriously ill in the United States all the time. Fully 
half of this illness is preventable. Tuberculosis is a preven¬ 
table disease, and yet there are one and a half million cases 
of tuberculosis in the United States with one hundred sixty 
thousand deaths annually. One million six hundred thou¬ 
sand of our population die each year, about 42 per cent of 
these deaths being from preventable diseases. 



Figure 48. A class of foreigners in an evening school. 


The Public School As an Instrument of Democracy. 

The public school trains for citizenship. It is the instrument 
of the republic to prepare young citizens for lives of useful¬ 
ness and service. A successful life is not a matter of chance 
but the result of a definite purpose. In the public school 
society provides a means by which the individual student may 
acquire useful habits, learn to think and make right decisions, 
develop wholesome attitudes toward society and government, 
and to take a share in the work of the world. 

Special trade schools prepare for various vocations and 
often night schools are conducted for foreigners or those who 
could not otherwise attend. 















MAKING OF AN AMERICAN CITIZEN 


133 


The public school is the great “Melting Pot” of the coun¬ 
try where ideas are formed and character is determined. 
T he magnitude of its work is realized when we consider that 
one fifth of our population is in those institutions. According 
to the census, there are twenty-eight millions of children 
between the age of five and eighteen years. The enrollment 
in schools is twenty-one millions. In Minnesota, over one 
half a million pupils attend public schools each year. The 
country is calling to-day for youths who will dedicate them¬ 
selves to the service of America in the common life of the 
field, the shop, and the office. The test of character comes in 
doing the common things faithfully and in the spirit of good 



Figure 49. An evening class studying electricity in the South St. Paul High School. 


will. A good school is one in which the pupils stand for high 
ideals of behavior and have learned to work and play in a 
way that promotes the welfare and honor of America. 

A Country of Happy Homes. Life centers about the 
home. The home claims most of our time, thought, and 
effort. America was founded and settled by people who 
were looking for a land where homes might be established. 
Every family that is economically independent, lives hy- 
gienically, and practices the qualities of a good neighbor, is 
an asset to the community. Much of the expense of govern- 















134 


ELEMENTARY CITIZENSHIP 


ment is caused by those who neglect their homes and forget 
their responsibility to their families. The young man who 
loves home and is guided by ideals learned from his mother is 
not a problem for the policeman or truant officer. 

Robert Burns, who wrote “The Cotter’s Saturday Night,” 
pictures a simple home scene as revealing the greatness of his 
country. If our early patriots were home seekers, if patriots 
in every age have defended the home, should not the young 
patriot of this age find work and pleasure through the home? 
To make our country exemplify the spirit and industry of a 
great family is a worthy aim. Contentment and happiness 
must have their roots in a worthy home life. The “Blue 
Bird” of happiness is not to be found in some far off time or 
land but in the home—your home and mine. 

The Soldier’s and Sailor’s Call to Service. In the 
country’s need, American citizens have been ever ready to 
respond to the call. Minnesota’s part in preserving the 
union and making the world safe for democracy has been 
most honorable. In the Civil War, 22,016 troops were 
furnished by the state; in the World War, Minnesota gave 
107,902 men in the army service and 15,423 in the navy 
and marine corps. The Grand Army of the Republic is an 
organization of the survivors of the northern army in the 
Civil War. The American Legion is composed of the men 
who served in the World War. The members of these 
organizations served their country in time of war, and now 
that peace has come they are no less true patriots. Honor 
is due those who make sacrifices for their country. A grate¬ 
ful people remembers those who have made the supreme 
sacrifice for home and native land. 

Building the Moral Strength of a People. Moral strength 
is a quiet force which controls and directs. It is never loud 
or boastful. It is the strength which manifests itself in right 
conduct. No nation is ready for democracy until the people 
acquire moral power to control themselves and do right. 


MAKING OF AN AMERICAN CITIZEN 


135 


It is easy enough to do the things we like to do, the ques¬ 
tion is, do we like the things we ought to do? 

What do you like to do? Are the things you like to do 
worthy of you, of your home, and of your country? Many 
fail to realize that they can train themselves to like new 
things, fine things, right things. Training oneself to enjoy 
beautiful music and fine pictures is to develop moral strength. 
To cease doing the easy things and learn to do the right 
things calls for perseverance. To substitute a worthy habit 
for one that wastes time and strength calls for the exercise of 
manly qualities. The moral patriot not only has courage to 
do the right, but he makes it easy for his companions to do 
the fair, square thing. 

Individual Responsibility. The United States is one 
community, but is made up of many members or citizens. 
Each citizen should do his part to promote prosperity, peace, 
and righteousness. Every citizen has responsibilities toward 
himself, his own home, and the government which protects 
him. Sometimes an individual thinks that his bit does not 
count, forgetting that the world’s work is done and American 
ideals are established by the life and work of individuals. 
There are very definite ways in which students in school 
may accept responsibility as American citizens. 

/. Civic rights and obligations may be most appropri¬ 
ately studied in the schoolroom. This study may begin 
with a study of the local community, its organization, and 
government and extend to an understanding of the federal 
constitution as the foundation law of the nation and all our 
institutions. Every student in the public school is looking 
forward to the time when he will vote. Since America 
recognizes universal suffrage, this privilege belongs to girls as 
well as boys. To vote intelligently, the voter must know how 
to study public questions, get at the facts and then to reach 
conclusions. Every self-respecting citizen wants to own 
property and, as a property owner, will be required to pay 


136 


ELEMENTARY CITIZENSHIP 


taxes to the support of government. If the taxpayer under¬ 
stands the system of taxation and is acquainted with the 
work carried on by the government to protect society and 
promote the social welfare, taxes will be paid as a privilege 
and not as a hardship. 

Since English is the language of the school, of the courts, 
of business, and of the press generally, the ability to read, 
write, and speak English will be recognized as highly desir¬ 
able for every citizen. 

2. Habits of thrift should be acquired early in life. The 
savage makes no provision for to-morrow; the civilized man 
denies himself to-day that some desirable want of the future 
may be provided. Here are three thoughts on thrift. 

“Extravagance rots character. Train youth away from 
it. On the other hand, the habit of saving money, while it 
stiffens the will, also brightens the energies. If you would 
know that you are beginning aright, begin to save/’— 
Theodore Roosevelt. 

“Industry earns, economy manages, prudence plans, 
frugality saves, but thrift earns, plans, manages, and saves.” 
—T. D. MacGregar. 

“Self-government means self-support. There can be no 
remedy for lack of industry and thrift.”—President Calvin 
Coolidge. 

You remember that economics was defined as the science 
of wealth-getting and wealth-spending. The thrifty person 
practices the principles of economics. Through thrift a boy 
or girl lays the foundation for business prosperity and econom¬ 
ic independence. Through care of personal belongings, 
economy in the use of school supplies, protection of public 
property, and the encouragement of saving through canning 
or other clubs and savings banks, public school pupils may 
have a vital part in promoting national thrift. 

3. Respect for law is an expression of loyalty to America. 
George Washington as an individual adopted a code of con- 


MAKING OF AN AMERICAN CITIZEN 


137 


duct for his guidance. An orderly school is governed by 
principles and standards. A game of baseball must be played 
according to rules. A community is governed by laws. 
These laws, in a democracy, are made by the people or their 
duly elected representatives to promote the general welfare. 
If laws do not do so, they should be changed. He is a poor 
citizen who salutes the flag and then fails to obey the rules of 
the school and the laws of the republic. The only way to 
show your respect for law is through obedience. Respect 
for law includes respect for those in authority. The young 
citizen is respectful to his father, teacher, and all others 
charged with the enforcement of law and order. 

4. A spirit of reverence finds expression in a devotion to 
noble ideals. Life is a sacred trust. The best powers of the 
country’s manhood and womanhood are required to solve 
the problems of our social and economic life. The spiritual 
forces of the race must be conserved. Pure thoughts, right 
conduct, and reverence for things sacred and holy are essential 
qualities in the making of an American citizen. 

The Church As an Institution. One of the institutions 
which is vitally molding the life and ideals of the nation 
is the church. The church is organized to relieve distress, 
to develop the spiritual faculties of the human race, and to 
promote peace among men. To instill in the hearts and 
minds of the youth of the land lofty attitudes, high ideals, 
and regard for truth and right is the educational work of 
the church. The church deserves leadership and intelligent 
support. In America, the church and the state are sep¬ 
arate. A man’s religion is a matter to be determined by 
his own conscience; but, nevertheless, religion should not be 
ignored as a great moral force in the life of a nation. 

In recent years, organized efforts are being made to 
bring the influence of the church to the remote and in¬ 
accessible places. In some rural communities a large parish 
plan is being carried out. Good roads and the use of the 


138 


ELEMENTARY CITIZENSHIP 


automobile make it possible for a pastor to serve several 
points. The ease of travel enables people to gather from 
a large area for worship and religious instruction. 

The state law provides that on request of parent or 
guardian, a child may be excused from the public school, 
not to exceed three hours a week, to attend a school for 
religious instruction conducted or maintained by some 
church or association of churches. 

The Simple Life. America is passing through a period of 
social unrest, economic depression, and moral laxity. This 
disturbed condition is evident to the observer and student of 
human affairs and conduct. No nation can continue to 
prosper in which wealth is squandered, the energies of the 
people wasted, and pleasure and recreations carried to the 
point of intemperance. Americans need to practice the homely 
virtues of industry, thrift, temperance, self-control, honesty, 
and righteousness. The youths of the land who have eyes to 
see the country’s need and courage to follow their convictions 
will dedicate their lives to the service of mankind. In the 
common walks of life and in simple living they will find 
adventure, a test for all their powers, and satisfaction of duty 
done. The nation calls its citizens to catch the spirit of the 
founders of this republic, to emulate the sturdiness of the 
early pioneers, and to so act that prosperity, peace, and 
righteousness shall be promoted. The call is to you. The 
country of to-morrow will depend on the youth of to-day. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Kirkpatrick, E. A. The Use of Money, How to Save and How to 
Spend. Bobbs-Merrill Company, 1915. 

Moley, Raymond and Cook, Huldah Florence. Lessons in Democracy 
for Use in Adult Immigrant Classes. The Macmillan Company, 
1922. Contains general information on governmental activities. 
Price, Overton W. The Land We Live In. The boy’s book of con¬ 
servation. Small, Maynard and Company, 1911. Conservation 
of forests, farm, mine, wild life and streams, is treated. 

Patriotism and the Flag. Retold from St. Nicholas. The Century 


MAKING OF AN AMERICAN CITIZEN 


139 


Company, 1918. Stories of patriotism, courage and self-sacrifice. 
Smith, John F. Our Neighborhood. Good Citizenship in Rural 

Communities. The John C. Winston Company, 1918. 

TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION AND INVESTIGATION 

1. Explain in your own way why the greatness of the United States 
is dependent upon the character of the people rather than upon its 
material wealth. 

2. What is the meaning of this expression, “The home, the church, 
the school, form the tripod which supports civilization.” 

3. What is the meaning of the following terms: alien, naturaliza¬ 
tion, first papers, immigrant, foreign-born, native-born, minor child. 

4. What nationalities are not permitted to become citizens of the 
United States? Why? What nationalities are excluded from the 
United States? Why? 

5. What are the requirements for the admission of any foreigners 
to this country? Read a description of Ellis Island and the work of the 
immigration officials to understand the procedure by which foreigners 
are admitted to the country; how the country is protected from the 
admission of undesirable aliens; how the government protects the newly 
arrived foreigner. What department of the government is in charge of 
immigration? 

6. Should foreign-born residents be permitted to make America 
their home if they do not wish to become citizens? 

7. Do you think illiterate foreigners should be admitted to the 
United States? Explain. Why should all aliens know English before 
they are admitted to citizenship? What other qualifications would you 
require of aliens before they are admitted to citizenship? 

8. What percent of Minnesota’s population is foreign-born? The 
state and local communities conduct classes to prepare immigrants for 
citizenship. Whom do you think should pay for this training, the state 
and local community or the foreigners? 

9. Give the procedure for the naturalization of a man, a woman, 
minor children. Before what officials must such adult persons appear? 
Why is five years of continuous residence required as a necessary 
condition of citizenship? 

10. What are some of the problems which confront the United 
States and Minnesota as a result of immigration? Explain the meaning 
of the term, “Melting Pot.” What restrictions have been placed upon 
immigration by Congress? Why? 

11. Can you name any valuable contribution to the United States 
which the foreign-born can make? 


140 


ELEMENTARY CITIZENSHIP 


12. What can you do to help foreigners understand and appreciate 
the laws, customs, and social life of the United States? 

13. Explain why common interests and common ideals are essential 
to the prosperity and welfare of the nation. 

14. Review Topics for Discussion under chapters II, V, and VI. 

15. In what respects has Minnesota conserved her natural resources? 
wasted them? What suggestions can you offer for a further conserva¬ 
tion. Explain how the farmers and the business men in your community 
are conserving the natural resources; wasting them. What are you 
doing to conserve natural resources? How are you wasting them? 

16. Explain in your own words the three stages in the development 
of natural resources as given in the report of the Commission on National 
Conservation. 

17. Why is the conservation of human life the most important of all 
problems of conservation? Show how the nation and state are safe¬ 
guarding the health of men, women, and children. Explain how prohi¬ 
bition is a conservation measure. 

18. How do the public schools serve to unify the ideals and character 
of the people? How do they help to conserve human resources? 

19. Explain how students can “work and play in such a manner as to 
promote the common welfare and the honor of America.” 

20. Show how worthy home life is a preparation for worthy citizen¬ 
ship. 

21. Make a list of the qualities which public officials should possess. 
Who is to blame if city, county or state officials are not capable? What 
do you think should be the qualifications of the officers for each elective 
and appointive office in the city and county government? 

22. Show how earning, spending wisely, saving, and investing are 
the four vital elements of thrift. Explain why some people are always 
poor. What is the difference between thrift and miserliness? What 
would you suggest as a good test to apply before spending your money? 

23. How does thrift in national and state affairs affect each citizen? 
How does individual thrift affect national prosperity? 

24. Why does the thrifty man support the church, the school, 
public improvements, and welfare organizations? 

25. When are food, clothing, and entertainment a necessity? 
When an extravagance? 

26. Of what value is a family budget? A personal budget? Should 
a person budget his work and recreation time? 

Write to the United States Treasury Department, Savings Division, 
for “Ten Lessons in Thrift,” and to the State Department of Educa¬ 
tion, St. Paul, Minnesota, for “The Teaching of Thrift.” 


CHAPTER X 


THE MACHINERY OF GOVERNMENT 

Government, of the people, by the people, for the people, 
shall not perish from the earth. 

—Abraham Lincoln, Gettysburg Address. 



Minnesota. June 1, 1849 Minnesota was declared by 
proclamation of Gov. Ramsey to be an organized territory. 
On May 11, 1858 it was admitted into the Union as a state. 
It includes 80,858 square miles and a population of 2,387,- 
125. It contains 152 rivers and more than ten thousand 
lakes. It is called the North Star state, and, sometimes, 
“the land of ten thousand lakes .” The state flower is the 
moccasin. 

Democracy and Representative Government. The word 
democracy means “the people rule.” In a democratic 
government, the will of the people is expressed in a legal 
way through elections, a majority of the voters deciding 
questions. One of the simplest and at the same time most 
democratic governments is the Minnesota town meeting or 
the annual school meeting in a common district. Here the 




142 


ELEMENTARY CITIZENSHIP 


resident voters of the township or district gather to discuss 
questions, to decide public policies, and to elect officers to 
carry out the expressed wish of the citizens. These meetings 
are community meetings, every voter being privileged to 
attend and to propose and vote for such measures as he 
thinks wise. The action of the town meeting or the school 
meeting has the force of legislation for the district concerned. 
Pure democracy of this kind is possible in the administration 
of small districts where the voters can meet conveniently 
for the purpose of deciding public questions. 

In the case of governments in large areas, it is evident that 
all the citizens can not meet for the transaction of public 
business. It is, therefore, necessary to choose a few persons 
who will represent the citizens in the making of laws and 
the transaction of public business. The term republic is 
sometimes applied to such a representative government. 

Legal Requirement in Minnesota. During the session of 
the Minnesota legislature in 1923 there was enacted a law 
which required that in the eighth grade and in the high 
school grades of all public schools, and in the corresponding 
grades in all other schools within the state of Minnesota 
and in the educational departments of state and municipal 
institutions there shall be given regular courses of instruction 
in the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution 
of the United States. 

LOCAL SELF-GOVERNMENT 
THE TOWNSHIP 

Territorial Extent. A town government, in Minne¬ 
sota, extends over a township which is regularly six miles 
square and contains thirty-six sections of land. 

Town Meetings. The annual meetings are held in 
each town on the second Tuesday of March. Special meet¬ 
ings may be called by petition signed by two officers and 
twelve other freeholders of the town. 


THE MACHINERY OF GOVERNMENT 


143 


Powers of Towns. A town is a corporation and is 
empowered (1) to sue and be sued by its corporate name, 
(2) to purchase and hold property, (3) to make contracts. 

No town shall exercise any corporate powers except such 
as are expressly given by law. 

Officers. Term of Office, and Duties. The following are 
the township officers with their respective duties: 

Three Supervisors, 3-year term. 

Judges of election; town board of health; town board of 
equalization; charge of roads and bridges, not state-aided; 
allow bills against town; make report to annual meeting. 

Cler\, 1-year term. 

Clerk board of supervisors; custody of records, books and 
papers of town; clerk of elections and town meetings; posts 
notices of elections and town meetings. 

Treasurer, 1-year term. 

Receives all moneys belonging to town and pays out same 
on order; keeps financial records; makes annual report for 
town meeting. 

Assessor, 2-year term, elected in odd-numbered years. 

Lists and places value on all personal property each year 
as basis of taxation. Real property listed every two years. 
Files assessment records with county auditor. 

Tu)o Justices of Peace, 2-year term. 

Try civil cases where the amount in controversy does 
not exceed $100 and criminal cases where punishment does 
not exceed fine of $100 or imprisonment of three months. 
Have no jurisdiction over actions involving real estate. 

Two Constables, 2-year term. 

Summon juries for Justice Courts; serve summons, 
warrants, ^executions and attachments issued by Justice 
Courts; summon coroner's juries. 

Town Road Overseer, 1-year term, appointed by town board. 

Charge of construction and maintenance of all town roads. 
Power to appoint assistants. 


144 


ELEMENTARY CITIZENSHIP 
COMMON SCHOOL DISTRICT 

Territorial Extent. May not be less than four square 
miles. District boundaries fixed by county commissioners. 

School Meetings. Annual meeting held on third 
Saturday in July. Special meetings called upon written 
request of five freeholders and voters of the district. 

Powers of Annual Meetings. The voters have the 
power to elect by ballot officers; to designate site for school- 
house and provide buildings; to vote funds for maintenance; 
to provide free textbooks and to provide for the management 
of the library; to fix months of school. 

Officers, Terms of Office, and Duties. School board, 
three members, clerk, chairman, and treasurer, each elected 
for a three-year term, one being chosen each year. Have 
general charge of business of district; employ teachers; 
purchase books and supplies; provide for heating and care of 
school buildings; pay all just claims against district. 

INDEPENDENT SCHOOL DISTRICT 

The independent district is not as purely democratic as 
the common school. It is suited to the needs of a large 
district or one in which the business is so complex as to 
demand administration by a board which constantly studies 
the district’s problems. 

Territorial Extent. Same as common school districts. 

School Meetings. Same as common school districts. 

Powers of Annual Meeting. Same as common school 
district except voting of tax levy. 

Officers, Term of Office, and Duties. School board, six 
members, each elected for a 3-year term, two being chosen 
each year. Duties same as common school boards and, in 
addition, may elect a superintendent; establish evening 
schools; establish kindergartens; fill vacancies on board; 
elect chairman, clerk, and treasurer; provide by levy of tax 
for conduct of school and payment of indebtedness. 


THE MACHINERY OR GOVERNMENT 


145 


Note: There are in the state a number of special 
districts organized under speeial acts of the legislature. 
These districts vary in their organization and powers. 
Special districts are no longer organized,as special legislation 
is forbidden by the state constitution. 

LOCAL REPRESENTATIVE GOVERNMENT 

VILLAGE 

Territorial Extent. Any district which has been platted 
into lots and blocks, with a population of not less than 200 nor 
more than 3,000. Incorporation is through an election held 
under direction of the County Board of Commissioners. 

Annual Election, held on the second Tuesday in March. 

Officers, Term of Office, and Duties. The following are 
the village officers and their respective duties. 

Village Council of five, consisting of a president, a clerk, 
and three trustees for 1-year term. The council has power 
to appoint village attorney, a pound master and street 
commissioner; to establish a fire department; to lay out and 
maintain streets; to regulate amusements; to establish 
libraries; to establish board of health; to light streets, and to 
levy and collect taxes and manage finances of village. 

Treasurer. 1-year term. Same as town. 

Two Justices of Peace. 2-year term. Same as town. 

Two Constables. 2-year term. Same as town. 

Note: City governments are modifications of the village 

organization. Cities in Minnesota are divided into four 

classes. First-class cities have a population of more than 

50,000, second-class cities, 20,000 to 50,000, third-class 10,000 

to 20,000, and fourth-class less than 10,000. All cities of the 

state are incorporated under the laws of Minnesota and their 

powers and authority are limited by statutes. The general 

laws provide that any city may frame a charter for its own 

government. Such charters are called home rule charters. 

Many cities have availed themselves of this privilege. In 
10 


146 


ELEMENTARY CITIZENSHIP 


some cases the commission form of government has been 
adopted. There is no common plan of organization in use in 
all cities of the state. 

COUNTY 

Territorial Extent. A county must contain not less 
than 400 square miles, 2,000 inhabitants and an assessed 
valuation of four million dollars. 

Annual Election. Officers are nominated at the pri¬ 
mary election held the third Monday in June. The election 
is held in even-numbered years on the first Tuesday after the 
first Monday in November. The biennial election in even- 
numbered years is called a General Election, as many state 
and national as well as local officers are elected at this time. 

Term of Office. All county officers are elected for 
four years. 

Officers and Duties. The following are the county officers 
with their respective duties: 

County Board of Commissioners , composed of five members 
representing districts. Their duties are as follows: 

Examine and settle all accounts of the county; have care 
of county property; erect and maintain court house and jail; 
lay out county roads; organize school districts, towns, and 
villages; constitute board of health and board of equalization; 
levy tax for county purposes. 

Auditor. Acts as clerk of county board, issues orders on 
county treasurer; computes tax on property; prepares 
ballots for elections; issues hunting and fishing licenses. 

Treasurer. Collects taxes and keeps record of all moneys 
received. Pays out money on orders signed by chairman of 
county board and auditor. 

Sheriff. Preserves peace of county; executes all proc¬ 
esses, writs, and orders issued by lawful authority; attends 
terms of district court; has charge of county jail and prisoners. 

Register of Deeds. Keeps records of deeds to property 
and mortgages; makes abstracts of title. 


THE MACHINERY OF GOVERNMENT 


147 


County Attorney. Appears for the county in all cases to 
which it is a party; gives legal advice to county officers; 
prosecutes criminal cases. 

Coroner. Inquires into death by violence; acts as sheriff 
in case of vacancy in that office. 

Surveyor. Makes surveys as ordered by court, public 
board, or officer; keeps a record of each survey. 

Superintendent of Schools. Supervises schools; holds teachers’ 
institutes; makes educational reports to State Department 
of Education. 

Judge of Prohate. Records wills and has charge of the 
estates of deceased persons; appoints guardians for minors 
and incompetents; performs marriage ceremonies. 

Cler\ of Court. Acts as clerk of district court; keeps 
records of births and deaths; issues naturalization papers; 
issues marriage licenses. 


STATE 

The government of Minnesota is based upon the state 
constitution. This basic law of the commonwealth was 
adopted by a vote of the people in 1857 as preparation for 
the admission of Minnesota into the Union. Since the formal 
admission of the state into the Union May 11, 1858, additions 
and changes have been made in the constitution to meet 
changing conditions. 

In outlining the government of Minnesota, the topics are 
taken up in the order in which they appear in the constitu¬ 
tion. Only the more important provisions are given in the 
outline. 

1. Bills of Rights (Article I, Constitution). This 
article restates the principle of liberty, personal security, and 
property rights. It guarantees (1) speedy public trial by 
jury in criminal prosecution; (2) security of people in their 
persons, houses, papers, and effects against searches; (3) 
freedom of conscience in the worship of God and in religious 


148 


ELEMENT ARY CITIZENSHIP 


beliefs; (4) liberty of press and person to speak, write and 
publish their sentiments, as long as the truth is spoken and 
no one’s rights arc abused. 

2. Name and Boundaries (Article II. Constitution). 

The name, “Minnesota,” given to the state was also the name 
of the territory. The term is of Indian origin and means 
“sky blue water.” It was first applied to the river which 
drains Big Stone Lake. The boundaries of the state are 
given in terms of streams, lakes, and straight lines. The 
northern line is the Canadian boundary, which has been 
fixed by international agreement. 

3. Distribution of the Powers of Government (Article 
III. Constitution). The powers of government are divided 
into three distinct departments: legislative, executive, and 
judicial. Each department is prohibited from exercising 
powers belonging to either of the others. This division of 
authority furnishes a check, one department on another, and 
prevents the assumption of arbitrary power by any depart¬ 
ment or official. 

(a) Legislative Department (ArticleIV.Constitution). 

The legislature consists of the Senate and House of Represen¬ 
tatives which meets biennially at the Capitol. No session 
shall exceed 90 legislative days and no new bill shall be 
introduced except on the written request of the Governor 
during the last 20 days. The representation in both houses 
is apportioned according to population. In the forty-third 
legislature, which convened the first Tuesday after the first 
Monday, January 1923, there were 130 members in the 
House and 67 in the Senate. 

Powers of Each House. Each house is judge of the 
election returns and eligibility of its own members; deter¬ 
mines the rules of procedure; elects its own officers; keeps 
journals of proceedings. 

Process of Law Making. Three methods. A bill may be¬ 
come a law by any one of these three methods. 


THE MACHINERY OF GOVERNMENT 


149 


(1) Passage of bill by majority vote in each house and 
then signed by the Governor. 

(2) Passage of bill by majority vote in each house, re¬ 
turned by the Governor without his signature, together with 
his objections. Repassed by each house with a two-thirds 
vote. 

(3) Passage of bill by majority vote in each house, 
presented to the Governor for signature, becomes a law if he 
fails to return the bill within three days, unless the adjourn¬ 
ment of the legislature prevents its return. 

Qualifications of Legislators. A legislator must be a quali¬ 
fied voter in the state; must have resided one year in the 
state and six months immediately preceding election in the 
district from which elected. 

Oath of Office. All members and officers of the legisla¬ 
ture must take an oath to support the constitutions of the 
United States and of Minnesota, and to faithfully and 
impartially discharge their duties as lawmakers. 

Restriction of Legislators. No lottery or sale of lottery 
tickets shall be authorized; no special laws shall be enacted. 

Taxation of Railroads. There is provided in the constitu¬ 
tion a gross earnings tax for railroads and telephone com¬ 
panies. This tax has been fixed at 5 per cent of the earn¬ 
ings. It is in lieu of all other taxes and is paid into the state 
treasury. 

Home Rule Charters. Any city or village ’ in the state 
may frame a charter for its own government as a city. On 
petition of ten per cent of the legal voters, the judge of the 
district court appoints a charter commission of fifteen men. 
The charter framed by them is voted upon by the people at 
a special election. The adoption of a Home Rule Charter 
requires a four-sevenths vote. 

(b) Executive Department (Article V. Constitution). 
Consists of a governor, lieutenant governor, secretary of 
state, auditor, treasurer, and attorney general. The term of 


150 


ELEMENTARY CITIZENSHIP 


office of each is two years, except the auditor whose term is 
four years. 

Qualifications of Governor and Lieutenant Governor. Each shall 
have attained the age of twenty-five years, and shall have 
been a resident of the state for one year next preceding 
his election. Both shall be citizens of the United States. 

Powers and Duties of Governor. Informs the legislature through 
message; is commander-in-chief of military and naval forces 
of state; makes appointments by and with the consent of 
the senate; is member of pardoning board; has veto power; 
executes laws of state; may convene legislature on extra¬ 
ordinary occasions. 

Duties of Lieutenant Governor. Shall be ex officio president 
of the senate; becomes governor in case of a vacancy. 

Duties of Secretary of State. Custodian of state seal and 
records and documents of state; calls house of representa¬ 
tives to order and presides until a speaker is elected. 

Duties of Auditor. Bookkeeper of state; manages fiscal 
concerns of state; has supervision of lands owned by state. 

Duties of Treasurer. Receives and receipts for all moneys 
paid into the state treasury and safely keeps the same until 
lawfully disbursed. 

Duties of Attorney General. Appears for the state in all 
cases in the supreme and federal courts; also in all civil 
cases in district court whenever in his opinion the interests 
of the state require it. Acts as attorney for state officers 
and boards in matters pertaining to their official duties. 

Note: The state law also provides for the appointment 
by the Governor of a number of executive officers and boards. 
Among these are: adjutant general, board of control (four), 
dairy and food commissioner, fire marshal, insurance commis¬ 
sioner, publicexaminer, state forester, superintendent of banks, 
commissioner of weights and measures, game and fish commis¬ 
sioner, industrial commission (three), board of regents of the 
university, state board of education, teachers college board. 


THE MACHINERY OF GOVERNMENT 


151 


(c) Judiciary (Article VI. Constitution). The judicial 
power of the state is vested in a supreme court, district 
courts, courts of probate, justices of the peace and other 
courts inferior to the supreme court as the legislature may 
establish by a two-thirds vote. 

Supreme Court. Consists of a chief justice and four 
associates. The judges are chosen by the electors of the 
state at large for a term of six years. The clerk of the 
supreme court is chosen by the electors of the state for a 
term of four years. 

District Courts. The state has been divided into nine¬ 
teen districts. (One or more judges are elected in each 
district for a term of six years.) 

Probate Court. See county officers. 

Justices of Peace. See township and village officers. 

Vacancy in office of any judge is filled by appointment 
by the governor. Such appointee holds office until the 
next annual election. 

4. Elective Franchise (Article VII. Constitution). Every 
person, male or female, may vote who is twenty-one years 
old, and who belongs to one of the following classes, who has 
resided in the state six months and in the election district 
thirty days next preceding any election: (1) citizens of the 
United States who have been such for three months next 
preceding any election; (2) persons of mixed white and Indian 
blood who have adopted the customs and habits of civiliza¬ 
tion; (3) persons of Indian blood who have been admitted to 
citizenship. 

5. School Funds, Education and Science (Article VIII. 
Constitution). This article of the constitution defines the 
school funds and their management and provides for the 
establishment of the University. (See chapter V.) 

6. Finances of the State, Banks and Banking (Article 
IX. Constitution). The legislature is empowered to levy 
uniform taxes; pass a general banking law and establish 


152 


ELEMENTARY CITIZENSHIP 


certain funds. In 1912, an amendment to this article ap¬ 
proved a “State Road and Bridge Fund” to be derived from a 
one-mill tax on all taxable property of the state. Another 
amendment adopted in 1922 authorized the loaning of the 
credit of the state to aid the development of the agricultural 
resources of the state. This provision is referred to as “Rural 
Credits System.” 

7. Corporations Having No Banking Privileges (Article 

X. Constitution). Provision is made for the chartering of 
corporations under laws of the state. An amendment to 
this article adopted in 1922 provides for a tax in addition 
to other taxes upon iron ore mined in the state. This is 
an “occupation tax.” 

8. Counties and Townships (Article XI. Constitu¬ 
tion). This article establishes limits for the organization 
of counties and townships. 

9. Militia. (Article XII. Constitution). The legis¬ 
lature shall pass laws for the organization, discipline, and 
service of the militia. 

10. Impeachment (Article XIII. Constitution). Pro¬ 
vides for the impeachment and removal from office of officials 
for corrupt conduct or for crimes and misdemeanors. 

11. Amendments to Constitution (Article XIV. Con¬ 
stitution). Whenever a majority of both houses of the 
legislature shall deem it necessary to amend the constitution, 
they propose such amendments. The proposed amend¬ 
ments are submitted to the people for their approval or 
rejection at the next general election. 

A general revision of the constitution may be proposed by 
a two-thirds vote of each house of the legislature. This 
proposal is submitted to a vote of the people at the next 
general election. In case the proposal carries, a convention 
is called for the revision of the constitution. 

12. Miscellaneous Subjects (Article XV. Constitu¬ 
tion). The seat of government is located at St. Paul. A 


THE MACHINERY OF GOVERNMENT 


153 


seal of the state is authorized to be kept by the Secretary of 
State and to be attached to all official acts of the Governor. 

13. Trunk Highway System (Article XVI. Constitu¬ 
tion). This article was adopted in 1920 and is known as the 
“Good Roads” amendment. It provides for the establish¬ 
ment of seventy routes as trunk highways. These roads are 
constructed and maintained by the state. 

NATIONAL 

The Constitution of the United States is the supreme law 
of the land. It was adopted in 1778. The preamble of the 
United States Constitution plainly indicates that this great 
instrument establishes a government “of the people, by the 
people, and for the people.” 

1. Legislative Power (Article I. Constitution) is vested 
in a Congress of the United States, which consists of a Senate 
and House of Representatives. 

House of Representatives: Is composed of members elected 
for two years by the people of the states, the electors in 
each state being those qualified to vote for members of the 
most numerous branch of the state legislature. Representa¬ 
tives are apportioned among the state according to popula¬ 
tion. A representative must be twenty-five years of age, 
seven years a citizen of the United States and an inhabitant 
of the state from which he is chosen. The House originates 
all bills to raise revenue. It has sole power to bring impeach¬ 
ment charges against federal officials. 

Senate: Is composed of two senators from each state, 
elected for six years by the people. A senator must be thirty 
years of age, nine years a citizen of the United States and an 
inhabitant of the state from which he is chosen. The Senate 
confirms the appointments made by the president, ratifies 
treaties made by the president, and tries impeachment 
charges. 

Each House is judge of the election returns and qualifica- 


154 


ELEMENTARY CITIZENSHIP 


tions of its own members, determines its rules of procedure, 
keeps journal of proceedings, and chooses its own officers. 

The Powers of Congress are specific: (1) To lay and collect 
taxes, duties, and excises, (2) to borrow money on the credit 
of the United States, (3) to regulate commerce with foreign 
nations and among the several states, (4) to establish rules 
of naturalization and laws on bankruptcy, (5) to coin money 
and fix standard of weights and measures, (6) to provide pun¬ 
ishment for counterfeiting, (7) to establish post offices and 
post roads, (8) to provide copyrights and patents, (9) to 
establish courts inferior to Supreme Court, (10) to define and 
punish piracies and felonies on the high seas, (11) to declare 
war, (12) to raise and support armies, (13) to provide and 
maintain a navy, (14) to make rules for the government of 
land and naval forces, (15) to provide for calling the militia 
to execute laws of the Union, suppress insurrections, and repel 
invasion, (16) to provide for the organization of the militia 
and the training of officers, (17) to exercise exclusive legisla¬ 
tion over the District of Columbia and federal arsenals, 
docks, forts, and places purchased by the United States. 

The prohibitions on Congress are that it can not suspend 
habeas corpus except in time of war; nor pass bills of 
attainder or ex post facto laws nor grant titles of nobility. 

The prohibitions on the states are that no state can enter into 
any treaty or make an alliance; coin money; regulate legal 
tender; pass a bill of attainder or ex post facto law; impair the 
obligation of contracts or grant any title of nobility. 

No state without the consent of Congress may lay any 
duties on imports; keep troops or war ships. 

2. Executive Power (Article II. Constitution) is vested 
in a president of the United States. He holds his office to¬ 
gether with the vice president for a term of four years. The 
present procedure in the election of president and vice 
president is prescribed in the twelfth amendment to the 
constitution. 


THE MACHINERY OF GOVERNMENT 


155 


Oath of Office: The president takes the following oath, “I 
do solemnly wear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute 
the office of president of the United States, and will, to the 
best of my ability, preserve, protect and defend the constitu¬ 
tion of the United States.” 

Power and Duties of the President: Is commander-in¬ 
chief of the army and navy; may require reports from heads 
of departments; may grant reprieves and pardons for offenses 
against the United States, except in cases of impeachment; 
sends messages to congress; may convene congress or either 
house; may adjourn congress in case of a disagreement; 
receives ambassadors and foreign ministers; executes the 
laws of the United States; makes treaties with the advice and 
consent of the senate, provided two thirds of the senators 
present concur; with the advice and consent of the senate, 
appoints ambassadors, ministers, consuls, judges of the 
Supreme Court and other officers of the United States. 

3. Judicial Power (Article III. Constitution) is vested in 
one Supreme Court and such inferior courts as congress may 
establish. Judges of the Supreme Court and other federal 
courts hold office during good behavior. The Supreme Court 
consists of one chief justice and eight associate justices. The 
following inferior courts have been established by congress: 9 
circuit courts of appeal; 95 district courts; 1 court of claims. 

Jurisdiction extends to cases arising under (1) the consti¬ 
tution, (2) laws of the United States, (3) treaties, (4) cases 
affecting ambassadors, ministers and consuls, (5) cases on 
the high seas, (6) controversies to which the United States 
is a party, (7) controversies between states, (8) certain cases 
in which a state is a party. 

Treason against the United States shall consist only in 
levying war against it, or in adhering to its enemies, giving 
them aid and comfort. No person shall be convicted of trea¬ 
son unless on the testimony of two witnesses to the same 
overt act, or on confession in open court. 


156 


ELEMENTARY CITIZENSHIP 


4. Trial by Jury (Amendment VI. Constitution). One 
of the most fundamental and important rights of a citizen, if 

accused of crime, is the guarantee of a speedy and public 

♦ 

trial by jury. He is also enabled with compulsory pro¬ 
cesses that may assist in his defense. Amendments V and 
VI have safeguarded our rights and liberties in brilliant con¬ 
trast with conditions of other countries and times. 

5. Relations between States (Article IV. Constitution). 
This article provides: (1) that records and judicial proceed¬ 
ings of one state must be recognized in the other states. The 
marriage ceremony performed and recorded in one state is 
recognized in others. (2) A citizen enjoying certain rights 
in his home state can not be deprived of these privileges when 
he travels, but a criminal who flees from justice and is found 
in another state may be extradited. (3) New states are 
admitted to the Union by Congress, but territory can not be 
taken away from any state without the consent of the 
legislature thereof. (4) A republican form of government is 
guaranteed to every state. Thus is organized a democractic 
and representative government. 

6. Amendments to the Constitution (Article V. Consti¬ 
tution). Amendments may be proposed (1) by a two-thirds 
vote of both houses of congress, (2) by a convention called by 
congress at the request of the legislatures of two thirds of the 
states. Amendments proposed by either method must be 
ratified by three fourths of the states. This ratification may 
be done by the legislatures of the states or by conventions in 
each state according as one or the other method of ratification 
is proposed by congress. All the amendments to the con¬ 
stitution have been proposed by congress and ratified by the 
requisite number of states. 

7. Miscellaneous (Article VI. Constitution). (1) Debts 
contracted before the adoption of the constitution are to be 
valid claims against the United States. (2) The constitu¬ 
tion, laws of the United States, and all treaties constitute t he 


THE MACHINERY Of GOVERNMENT 


157 



Figure 51. Chart showing principal corresponding officials in county, city, state, and nation. 
































































158 


ELEMENTARY CITIZENSHIP 


supreme laws of the land. (3) Public officials must take an 
oath of office, but no religious test shall be required as a 
qualification for any office. 

8. Ratification (Article VII. Constitution). The ratifi¬ 
cation of the constitution by conventions of nine states was 
declared sufficient for the establishment of the constitution. 

AMENDMENTS TO THE UNITED STATES CONSTITUTION 

I to X. Bill of Rights guaranteeing personal and political freedom. 

XI. Forbids the suing of a state by citizens of another state or any 
foreign state. 

XII. Changed the method of electing president and vice president 
of the United States by the electors chosen by the different 
states so that the list of persons voted for as president are 
distinct from the list of those voted for as vice president. 

XIII. Forbids salvery. 

XIV. Gave the rights of citizenship to the negro. 

XV. Gave the franchise to the negro. 

XVI. Gives Congress the power to collect taxes on incomes. 

XVII. Provides for the election of United States Senators by popular 
vote. 

XVIII. Prohibits the manufacture, sale or transportation of intoxicat¬ 
ing liquors. 

XIX. Gives the franchise to women. 

TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION AND INVESTIGATION 

1. Who are entitled to vote in Minnesota? Who are not entitled 
to vote? Why is the right to vote denied these people? 

2. Do you think the following should be allowed to vote: an il¬ 
literate person? one who has no property? Explain. Prepare a test 
which a person who is to vote intelligently should be able to pass. 

3. If a person is entitled to the ballot, why is it his duty to vote? 
How many votes were cast in your community at the last election? 
How many voters were there? Are persons who do not exercise their 
right to vote good citizens? Should people be penalized for failure to 
vote? 

4. Describe the procedure for (a) registering voters in your 
community; (b) holding an election. Use the following outline: 
Various officers at work and their duties; equipment necessary; steps in 
registering and balloting. Can you get the form of ballot used in your 
last election? 


THE MACHINERY OF GOVERNMENT 


159 


5. What are the dates, in Minnesota, of election for township, city, 
state, and national officials? At how many different elections may a 
voter in your community cast a ballot? Why are not all these elections 
held on the same date? 

6. Distinguish between town, village, and city as used in a legal 
way in Minnesota. 

7. Why is the town meeting called a pure democracy? Explain 
why the township form of government would not be satisfactory for city 
government? 

8. Why should people living in cities need more regulations than do 
those living in the country? What is the difference between an ordin¬ 
ance or regulation of the city and a law? If you live in an incorporated 
village or city, make a list of the ordinances which are in effect. Which 
ones affect you? 

9. Who enforces city or village ordinances? What village or city 
officers are not found in township government? 

10. Explain the terms: pure democracy, republic, local self-govern¬ 
ment, local representative government, representative government. 
What form of local government has your community? What are the 
advantages and disadvantages of local self-government? of local rep¬ 
resentative government? 

11. If you live in an incorporated village or city, get a copy of the 
articles of incorporation. How does a city proceed to incorporate? 
If your city has a charter, tell when, how, and for what purposes it was 
adopted. What are the advantages that come to a village or city 
through incorporation? 

12. What are the chief powers of the mayor? the council? When 
and where does the council in your community meet? What is the 
salary of the members and how is it determined? What are the most 
important questions that come before a village or city council? If you 
were a member of your city council, what changes would you recommend 
in the city regulations? Give the various steps from the introduction 
to the passage of an ordinance. 

13. What new county was recently formed in Minnesota? Give 
the legal procedure necessary in creating that county. 

14. How many members comprise your county board of super¬ 
visors? Where and how often are the regular meetings held in your 
county? When does the township board meet? What authority has 
the county board of supervisors over the county officers? Compare 
the manner of nominating township and county officers. What are 
some of the problems that come before the county board? Can you 
suggest any problem which the board could consider for the improve- 


160 


ELEMENTARY CITIZENSHIP 


raent of conditions in your county? 

15. Make a list of the elective and the appointive officers in your 
(1) township; (2) village or city; (3) school district; (4) county; (5) 
state. Give the following data with regard to each: manner of choosing; 
when elective officers were nominated and elected; length of term; 
salaries; duties. Give the names of the present elective officers in each 
of the five political units given above. What officials, if any, in your 
community were appointed by the board of county supervisors? by the 
governor? by the president? 

16. Who represents you on the county board of supervisors? in the 
state legislature? in Congress? 

17. Draw a map of Minnesota. On this map locate in such a man¬ 
ner that they will be distinct the boundaries of: 

a. Your congressional district. 

b. Your county. 

c. Your township. 

d. Your school district. 

e. Your village or city. 

Get the following data for each: the size; the population. 

Locate on this map the incorporated villages and cities in your 
county; the townships; the county seat. Give reasons for the location 
of your county seat. 

18. How did each of the following get its name: your town; your 
village or city; your county; Give a short historical sketch of each. 
How are your school and congressional districts designated? How 
many congressional districts are there in Minnesota? 

19. Review the government of Minnesota before it was admitted to 
statehood. Give the procedure by which a territory becomes a state. 
Review Chapter VI and Topics for Discussion for the drafting, ratify¬ 
ing, and amending of the United States constitution; of the constitution 
of Minnesota. Why should it be a difficult matter to amend a constitu¬ 
tion? 

20. Review the powers granted to Minnesota. Do you think any of 
these could be handled to better advantage by the national government? 

21. Give some privileges that a citizen of one state enjoys in another 
state. 

22. Explain the long and short sessions of Congress. When are 
they held? What is the number of the present or last Congress? 

23. How many members in the House of Representatives? in the 
Senate? How is this membership determined? Explain the justice of 
this method. How many representatives and senators from Minnesota? 
Can you name them? 


THE MACHINERY OF GOVERNMENT 


161 


24. What are the qualifications; the terms; the compensations for a 
representative? for a senator? for the. President of the United States? 
How are vancancies in these offices filled? 

25. Explain how a president is nominated and elected. How is the 
vote of Minnesota cast for the president? Do you favor this manner of 
choosing a president? 

26. How many parties were there in the last state election? the 
last national election? What were the platforms of each party? Of 
what value are parties in politics? 

27. How is the presiding officer of the House of Representatives 
chosen? of the Senate? What are the duties of these officers? Why do 
they have so great an influence? 

28. What special powers are granted to Congress? to the President? 
to the House of Representatives? to the Senate? What powers are 
denied Congress? 

29. Compare the powers and limitations of Congress with those of 
the State of Minnesota. 

30. What are the principal duties and compensations of cabinet 
officers? How are they chosen and for what purpose? 

31. Trace the course of a bill from its introduction until its final 
enactment as a law: in the State Legislature; in Congress. By what 
three methods may a bill become a law? Why are there so many steps? 

32. The Constitution provides for three departments of government: 
Legislative, Administrative, and Judicial. Explain the functions of 
each. 

33. Who is the executive officer of the United States? of Minnesota? 
of your city? 

34. What is the legislative branch of the U. S. government? of 
Minnesota? of your county? of your city? 

35. How is the judicial branch represented in each of the above 
political units? 

36. Make an outline of the several grades of courts in Minnesota, 
beginning with the lowest, indicating the number of judges; their terms; 
the manner of choosing; the jurisdiction of each court. Who is the 
Chief Justice of the Supreme Court? 

37. Who has the power of pardoning criminals in Minnesota? 


11 














■ 






























* 




APPENDIX 


THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE 


In Congress, July 4, 177G. 


THE UNANIMOUS DECLARATION OP THE THIRTEEN 
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 

WHEN, in the course of human events, it becomes necessary for 
one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them 
with another, and to assume, among the powers of the earth, the 
separate and equal station to which the laws of nature and of nature’s 
God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires 
that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation. 

We hold these truths to be self-evident: that all men are created 
equal; that they are endowed, by their Creator, with certain unalien¬ 
able rights; that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of hap¬ 
piness. That to secure these rights, governments are instituted among 
men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed; that 
whenever any form of government becomes destructive to these ends, 
it is the right of the people to alter or to abolish it, and to institute a 
new government, laying its foundation on such principles and organizing 
its powers in such form as to them shall seem most likely to effect their 
safety and happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate that govern¬ 
ments long established should not be changed for light and transient 
causes; and, accordingly, all experience hath shown that mankind are 
more disposed to suffer while evils are sufferable than to right themselves 
by abolishing the forms to which they are accustomed. But when a 
long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same 
object, evinces a design to reduce them under absolute despotism, it is 
their duty to throw off such government, and to provide new guards 
for their future security. Such has been the patient sufferance of these 
colonies; and such is now the necessity which constrains them to alter 
their former systems of government. The history of the present king 
of Great Britain is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations, all 
having in direct object the establishment of an absolute tyranny over 
these states. To prove this, let facts be submitted to a candid world. 

He has refused his assent to laws the most wholesome and necessary 
for the public good. 

He has forbidden his governors to pass laws of immediate and 
pressing importance, unless suspended in their operation till his assent 
should be obtained; and when so suspended, he has utterly neglected to 
attend to them. 




164 


ELEMENTARY CITIZENSHIP 


He has refused to pass other laws for the accommodation of largo 
districts of people, unless those people would relinquish the right of 
representation in the legislature—a right inestimable to them and 
formidable to tyrants only/ 

He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, uncom¬ 
fortable and distant from the repository of their public records, for the 
sole purpose of fatiguing them into compliance with his measures. 

He has dissolved representative houses repeatedly, for opposing, 
with manly firmness, his invasions on the rights of the people. 

He has refused for a long time after such dissolutions to cause 
others to be elected; whereby the legislative powers,incapable of annihi¬ 
lation, have returned to the people at large, for their exercise, the State 
remaining, in the meantime, exposed to all the dangers of invasion from 
without and convulsions within. 

He has endeavored to prevent the population of these States; for 
that purpose obstructing the laws for naturalization of foreigners; 
refusing to pass others to encourage their migration hither, and raising 
the conditions of new appropriations of lands. 

He has obstructed the administration of justice, by refusing his 
assent to laws for establishing judiciary powers. 

He has made judges dependent on his will alone for the tenure of 
their offices, and the amount and payment of their salaries. 

He has erected a multitude of new offices, and sent hither swarms of 
officers to harass our people and eat out their substance. 

He has kept among us, in times of peace, standing armies, without 
the consent of our legislatures. 

He has affected to render the military independent of, and superior 
to, the civil power. 

He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign 
to our constitution, and unacknowledged by our laws; giving his assent 
to their acts of pretended legislation: 

For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us: 

For protecting them, by a mock trial, from punishment for any 
murders which they should commit on the inhabitants of these states: 

For cutting off our trade with all parts of the world: 

For imposing taxes on us without our consent: 

For depriving us, in many cases, of the benefits of trial by jury: 

For transporting us beyond seas to be tried for pretended offenses: 

For abolishing the free system of English laws in a neighboring 
province, establishing therein an arbitrary government, and enlarging 
its boundaries, so as to render it at once an example and fit instrument 
for introducing the same absolute rule into these colonies: 

For taking away our charters, abolishing our most valuable laws, 
and altering, fundamentally, the forms of our government: 

For suspending our own legislatures, and declaring themselves 
invested with power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever. 

He has abdicated government here by declaring us out of his 
protection, and waging war against us. 

He has plundered our seas, ravaged our coasts, burnt our towns, 
and destroyed the lives of our people. 

He is at this time transporting large armies of foreign mercenaries, 
to complete the works of death, desolation, and tyranny, already begun 
with circumstances of cruelty and perfidy scarcely paralleled in the 


DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE 


165 


most bai barous ages, and totally unworthy the head of a civilized nation. 

He has constrained our fellow citizens, taken captive on the high 
seas, to bear arms against their country, to become the executioners of 
their friends and brethren, or to fall themselves by their hands. 

He has incited domestic insurrections among us, and has endeavored 
to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers the merciless Indian savages, 
whose known rule of warfare is an undistinguished destruction of all 
ages, sexes and conditions. 

In every stage of these oppressions we have petitioned for redress 
in the most humble terms; our repeated petitions have been answered 
only by repeated injury. A prince, whose character is thus marked by 
every act which may define a tyrant, is unfit to be the ruler of a free 
people. 

Nor have we been wanting in attentions to our British brethren. 
We have warned them, from time to time, of attempts by their legislature 
to extend an unwarrantable jurisdiction over us. We have reminded 
them of the circumstances of our emigration and settlement here. We 
have appealed to their native justice and magnanimity, and we have 
conjured them by the ties of our common kindred to disavow these 
usurpations, which would inevitably interrupt our connections and 
correspondence. They, too, have been deaf to the voice of justice 
and of consanguinity. We must therefore, acquiesce in the necessity 
which denounces our separation, and hold them, as we hold the rest of 
mankind—enemies in war, in peace, friends. 

We, therefore, the representatives of the UNITED STATES OF 
AMERICA, in general congress assembled, appealing to the Supreme 
Judge of the world for the rectitude of our intentions, do, in the name 
and by the authority of the good people of these colonies, solemnly 
publish and declare. That these United Colonies are, and of right ought 
to be Free and Independent States; that they are absolved from all 
allegiance to the British crown, and all political connection between 
them and the State of Great Britain is, and ought to be, totally dis¬ 
solved; and that, as Free and Independent States, they have full power 
to levy war, conclude peace, contract alliances, establish commerce, 
and to do all other acts and things which Independent States may of 
right do. And for the support of this Declaration, with a firm reliance 
on the protection of Divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each 
other our lives, our fortunes, and our sacred honor. 

JOHN HANCOCK. 

New Hampshire—Josiah Bartlett, William Whipple, Matthew 
Thornton. 

Massachusetts Bay—Samuel Adams, John Adams, Robert Treat 
Paine, Elbridge Gerry. 

Rhode Island, Etc.—Stephen Hopkins, William Ellery. 

Connecticut—Roger Sherman, Samuel Huntington, William 
Williams, Oliver Wolcott. 

New York—William Floyd, Philip Livingston, Francis Lewis, 
Lewis Morris. 

New Jersey—Richard Stockton, John Witherspoon, Francis Hop- 
kinson, John Hart, Abraham Clark. 

Pennsylvania—Robert Morris, Benjamin Rush, Benjamin Franklin 
John Morton, George Clymer, James Smith, George Taylor, James 
Wilson, George Ross. 



166 


ELEMENTARY CITIZENSHIP 


Delaware—Caesar Rodney, George Read, Thos. McKean. 
Maryland—Samuel Chase, William Paca, Thomas Stone, Charles 
Carroll of Carrollton. 

Virginia—George Wythe, Richard Henry Lee, Thomas Jefferson, 
Benjamin Harrison, Thomas Nelson, Jr., Francis Lightfoot Lee, Carter 
Braxton. 

North Carolina—William Hooper, Joseph Hewes, John Penn. 

South Carolina—Edward Rutledge, Thomas Hayward, Jr., Thos. 
Lynch, Jr., Arthur Middleton. 

Georgia—Button Gwinnett, Lyman Hall, George Walton. 


CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 


ARTICLE I. 
SECTION— 

1. Of the legislative power. 

2. House of representatives; 

qualification of members; 
apportionment of rep¬ 
resentatives and direct 
taxes; census; first ap¬ 
portionment; vacancies; 
officers of the house; im¬ 
peachments. 

3. Senate, classification of 

senators; qualifications 
of; vice president to 
preside; other officers; 
trial of impeachments. 

4. Election of members of 

congress; meetings of 
congress. 

5. Powers of each house; ex¬ 

pulsion of members; 
journal; adjournments. 

6. Compensation and privi¬ 

leges; disabilities of mem¬ 
bers 

7. Revenue bills; passage and 

approval of bills; orders 
and resolutions. 

8. General powers of congress. 

9. Certain limitations of the 

powers of congress. 

10. Limitation of the powers of 
individual states. 

ARTICLE II. 

1. Of the executive power; 
electors, how and when 
chosen; qualifications of 
president; when powers 
of, to devolve upon vice 
president; compensation 
and oath of president. 


SECTION— 

2. Powers and duties of presi¬ 

dent; making of treaties; 
power of appointment. 

3. Other powers and duties. 

4. Officers liable to impeach¬ 

ment. 

ARTICLE III. 

1. Of the judicial power. 

2. Extent of the judicial pow¬ 

er; jurisdiction of the 
supreme court; trials for 
crimes. 

3. Treason defined; trial for 

and punishment. 

ARTICLE IY. 

1. Effect of public acts, re¬ 

cords, etc., of each state. 

2. Citizenship; fugitives from 

justice and from service 
to be delivered up. 

3. Admission of new states; 

power of congress over 
territory. 

4. Republican form of govern¬ 

ment guaranteed to the 
several states; protection 
from invasion or domes¬ 
tic violence. 

ARTICLE V. 

1. How constitution may be 
amended. 

ARTICLE VI. 

1. Of the public debt; con¬ 
stitution to be supreme 
law of the land; constitu¬ 
tional oath of office; re¬ 
ligious tests prohibited. 

ARTICLE VII. 

1. Ratification of constitution. 



168 


ELEMENTARY CITIZENSHIP 


AMENDMENTS. 


ARTICLE— 

1. Religious freedom; freedom 

of speech and of the 
press; right of petition. 

2. Right to bear arms. 

3. Quartering of soldiers. 

4. Unreasonable searches and 

seizures; search warrants. 

5. Rights of persons charged 

with crimes; taking of 
private property. 

6. Trials in criminal cases and 

rights of the accused. 

7. Trials by jury in civil cases. 

8. Excessive bail, fines and 

punishments. 

9. Rights of the people. 

10. Of powers reserved to the 

states. 

11. Extent of judicial powers. 


ARTICLE— 

12. Manner of electing presi¬ 

dent and vice president; 
qualification of vice 
president. 

13. Prohibition of slavery. 

14. Citizenship; security of per¬ 

sons and property; ap¬ 
portionment of represen¬ 
tatives; who prohibited 
from holding office; va¬ 
lidity of the public debt; 
what obligations to be 
void. 

15. Right of citizens to vote. 

16. Income tax. 

17. Election of United States 

senators. 

18. Prohibition of the liquor 

traffic. 

19. Women’s suffrage. 


Preamble. We, the people of the United States, in order to form a more perfect union . 
establish justice, insure domestic tranquility, provide for the common defense; 
promote the general welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our 
posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America. 


ARTICLE I. 

Section 1. All legislative powers herein granted shall be vested in 
a congress of the United States, which shall consist of a senate and a 
house of representatives. 

Section 2. The house of representatives shall be composed of 
members chosen every second year by the people of the several states, 
and the electors in each state shall have the qualifications requisite for 
electors of the most numerous branch of the state legislature. 

No person shall be a representative who shall not have attained to 
the age of twenty-five years and been seven years a citizen of the United 
States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that state 
in which he shall be chosen. 

Representatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned among the 
several states which may be included within this Union according to 
their respective numbers, which shall be determined by adding to the 
whole number of free persons, including those bound to service for a 
term of years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three-fifths of all other 
persons. The actual enumeration shall be made within three years 
after the first meeting of the Congress of the United States, and within 
every subsequent term of ten years, in such manner as they shall by 
law direct. The number of representatives shall not exceed one for every 
30,000, but each state shall have at least one representative; and until 
such enumeration shall be made, the State of New Hampshire shall be 
entitled to choose 3; Massachusetts, 8; Rhode Island and Providence 


CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 


169 


Plantation, 1; Connecticut, 5; New York, 6; New Jersey, 4; Pennsyl¬ 
vania, 8; Delaware, 1; Maryland, 6; Virginia, 10; North Carolina, 5; 
South Carolina, 5; Georgia, 3. 

When vacancies happen in the representation from any state the 
executive authority thereof shall issue writs of election to fill such 
vacancies. 

The house of representatives shall choose their speaker and other 
officers, and shall have the sole power of impeachment. 

*Section 3. The Senate of the United States shall be composed of 
two senators from each state, elected by the people thereof, for six 
years; and each senator shall have one vote. The electors in each state 
shall have the qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous 
branch of the state legislatures. 

Immediately after they shall be assembled in consequence of the 
first election, they shall be divided, as equally as may be, into three 
classes. The seats of the senators of the first class shall be vacated at 
the expiration of the second year; of the second class at the expiration 
of the fourth year; and of the third class at the expiration of the sixth 
year, so that one-third may be chosen every second year. “When 
vacancies happen in the representation of any state in the Senate, the 
executive authority of such state shall issue writs of election to fill such 
vacancies: Provided, that the legislature of any state may empower 
the executive thereof to make temporary appointments until the people 
fill the vacancies by election as the legislature may direct. 

No person shall be a senator who shall not have attained to the 
age of thirty years, and been nine years a citizen of the United States, 
and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that state for which 
he shall be chosen. 

The vice president of the United States shall be president of the 
senate, but shall have no vote unless they be equally divided. 

The senate shall choose their own officers, and also a president 
pro tempore, in the absence of the vice president, or when he shall 
exercise the office of president of the United States. 

The senate shall have the sole power to try all impeachments. 

When sitting for that purpose they shall be on oath or affirmation. 
When the president of the United States is tried, the chief justice shall 
preside; and no person shall be convicted without the concurrence of 
two-thirds of the members present. 

Judgment in cases of impeachment shall not extend further than 
to removal from office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy any 
office of honor, trust or profit under the United States; but the party 
convicted shall nevertheless be liable and subject to indictment, trial, 
judgment, and punishment according to law. 

Section 4. The times, places and manner of holding elections for 
senators and representatives shall be prescribed in each state by the 
legislature thereof; but the Congress may at any time by law make or 
alter such regulations, except as to the places of choosing senators. 

The Congress shall assemble at least once in every year, and such 
meetings shall be on the first Monday in December, unless they shall, 
by law, appoint a different day. 


•Admendments ratified 1913. See Admendment No. 17. 



170 


ELEMENTARY CITIZENSHIP 


Section 5. Each house shall be the judge of the election returns 
and qualifications of its own members, and a majority of each shall con¬ 
stitute a quorum to do business; but a smaller number may adjourn 
from day to day, and may be authorized to compel the attendance of 
absent members, in such manner and under such penalties as each house 
may provide. 

Each house may determine the rules of its proceedings, punish its 
members for disorderly behavior, and, with the concurrence of two- 
thirds, expel a member. 

Each house shall keep a journal of its proceedings, and from time 
to time publish the same; excepting such parts as may in their judgment 
require secrecy; and the yeas and nays of the members of either house 
on any question shall, at the desire of one-fifth of those present, be 
entered on the journal. 

Neither house, during the session of congress, shall, without the 
consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to any other 
place than that in which the two houses shall be sitting. 

Section 6. The senators and representatives shall receive a com¬ 
pensation for their services, to be ascertained by law and paid out of the 
treasury of the United States. They shall, in all cases except treason, 
felony, and breach of the peace, be privileged from arrest during their 
attendance at the session of their respective houses, and in going to and 
returning from the same; and for any speech or debate in either house 
they shall not be questioned in any other place. 

No senator or representative shall, during the time for which he 
was elected, be appointed to any civil office under the authority of the 
United States which shall have been created or the emoluments whereof 
shall have been increased during such time; and no person holding any 
office under the United States shall be a member of either house during 
his continuance in office. 

Section 7. All bills for raising revenue shall originate in the house 
of representatives, but the senate may propose or concur with amend¬ 
ments, as on other bills. 

Every bill which shall have passed the house of representative and 
the senate shall, before, it becomes a law, be presented to the president 
of the United States; if he approve, he shall sign it; but if not, he shall 
return it, with his objections, to that house in which it shall have origin¬ 
ated, who shall enter the objections at large on their journal, and proceed 
to reconsider it. If, after such reconsideration, two-thirds of that house 
shall agree to pass the bill, it shall be sent, together with the objections, 
to the other house, by which it shall likewise be reconsidered, and, if 
approved by two-thirds of that house, it shall become a law. But in 
all cases the votes of both houses shall be determined by yeas and nays, 
and the names of the persons voting for and against the bill shall be 
entered on the journal of each house respectively. If any bill shall not 
be returned by the president within ten days (Sundays excepted) 
after it shall have been presented to him, the same shall be a law in 
like manner as if he had singed it, unless the Congress by their adjourn¬ 
ment prevent its return; in which case it shall not be a law. 

Every order, resolution, or vote to which the concurrence of the 
senate and ho use of representatives may be necessary (except on a ques- 


•Admendments ratified 1913. See Admendment No. 17. 



CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 


171 


tion of adjournment) shall be presented to the president of the United 
States, and, before the same shall take effect, shall be approved by him, 
or being disapproved by him, shall be repassed by two-thirds of the 
senate and house of representatives,according to the rules and limitations 
prescribed in the case of a bill. 

Section 8. The Congress shall have power: 

To lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts, and excises, to pay the 
debts and provide for the common defense and general welfare of the 
United States; but all duties, imposts and excises shall be uniform 
throughout the United States; 

To borrow money on the credit of the United States; 

To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the several 
states, and with the Indian tribes; 

To establish a uniform rule of naturalization and uniform laws 
on the subject of bankruptcies throughout the United States; 

To coin money, regulate the value thereof and of foreign coin, and 
fix the standard of weights and measures; 

To provide for the punishment of counterfeiting the securities and 
current coin of the United States; 

To establish postoffices and post roads; 

To promote the progress of science and useful arts, by securing for 
limited times, to authors and inventors, the exclusive right to their 
respective writings and discoveries; 

To constitute tribunals inferior to the supreme court; 

To define and punish piracies and felonies committed on the high 
seas, and offenses, against the laws of nations; 

To declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, and make 
rules concerning captures on land and water; 

To raise and support armies; but no appropriation of money to 
that use shall be for a longer term than two years; 

To provide and maintain a navy; 

To make rules for the government and regulation of the land and 
naval forces; 

To provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws of the 
Union, suppress insurrections and repel invasions; 

To provide for organizing, arming and disciplining the militia, and 
for governing such part of them as may be employed in the Service of 
the United States, reserving to the states, respectively, the appointment 
of the officers and the authority of training the militia according to the 
discipline prescribed by Congress; 

To exercise exclusive legislation in all cases whatsoever over such 
district (not exceeding ten miles square) as may, by cession of particular 
states and the acceptance of Congress, become the seat of the govern¬ 
ment of the United States; and to exercise like authority over all places 
purchased by the consent of the legislature of the state in which the 
same shall be, for the erection of forts, magazines, arsenals, dock yards, 
and other needful buildings; and 

To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying 
into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers vested by this 
Constitution in the government of the United States, or in any depart¬ 
ment or officer thereof. 

Section 9. The migration or importation of such persons as any of 
the states now existing shall think proper to admit shall not be pro- 


172 


ELEMENTARY CITIZENSHIP 


hibited by the Congress prior to the year one thousand eight hundred 
and eight; but a tax or duty may be imposed on such importation, not 
exceeding ten dollars for each person. 

The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be suspended 
unless when, in case of rebellion or invasion, the public safety may 
require it. 

No bill of attainder, or ex post facto law, shall be passed. 

No capitation or other direct tax shall be laid, unless in proportion 
to the census or enumeration hereinbefore directed to be taken. 

No tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported from any state, 
No preference shall be given, by any regulation of commerce or revenue, 
to the ports of one state over those of another; nor shall vessels bound to 
or from one state be obliged to enter, clear or pay duties in another. 

No money shall be drawn from the treasury but in consequence of 
appropriations made by law; and a regular statement and account of 
the receipts and expenditures of all public money shall be published from 
time to time. 

No title of nobility shall be granted by the United States, and no 
person holding any office of profit and trust under them shall, without 
the consent of the Congress, accept of any present, emolument, office or 
title of any kind whatever, from any king, prince or foreign state. 

Section 10. No state shall enter into any treaty, alliance or con¬ 
federation; grant letters of marque and reprisal; coin money; emit bills 
of credit; make anything but gold and silver coin a tender in payment of 
debts; pass any bill of attainder, ex post facto law, or law impairing the 
obligation of contracts, or grant any title of nobility. 

No state shall, without the consent of Congress, lay any imposts 
or duties on imports, or exports, except what may be absolutely neces¬ 
sary for executing its inspection laws; and the net produce of all duties 
and imposts laid by any state on imports or exports shall be for the 
use of the treasury of the United States; and all such laws shall be sub¬ 
ject to the revision and control of the Congress. 

No state shall, without the consent of Congress, lay any duty of 
tonnage, keep troops or ships of war in time of peace, enter into any 
agreement or compact with another state or with a foreign power, or 
engage in war, unless actually invaded or in such imminent danger as 
will not admit of delay. 

ARTICLE II. 

Section 1. The executive power shall be vested in a president of 
the United States of America. He shall hold his office during the term 
of four years, and, together with the vice president, chosen for the same 
term, be elected as follows: 

Each state shall appoint, in such manner as the legislature thereof 
may direct, a number of electors equal to the whole number of senators 
and representatives to which the state may be entitled in the Congress; 
but no senator or representative, or person holding an office of trust or 
profit under the United States, shall be appointed an elector. 

The electors shall meet in their respective states, and vote by 
ballot for two persons, of whom one at least shall not be an inhabitant 
of the same state with themselves. And they shall make a list of all 
the persons voted for, and the number of votes for each; which list they 
shall sign and certify, and transmit, sealed, to the seat of the govern- 


CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 


173 


mcnt of the United States, directed to the president of the senate. The 
president of the senate shall, in the presence of the senate and house of 
representatives, open all the certificates; and the votes shall then he 
counted. The person having the greatest number of votes shall be 
appointed, if such a number be a majority of the whole number of electors 
appointed; and if there be more than one who have such majority, and 
have an equal number of votes, then the house of representatives shall 
immediately choose, by ballot, one of them for president; and if no 
person have a majority, then from the five highest on the list the said 
house, shall, in like manner, choose the president. But in choosing the 
president the vote shall be taken by states, the representation from each 
state having one vote; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a mem¬ 
ber or members from two-thirds of the states, and a majority of all the 
states shall be necessary to a choice. In every case after the choice of 
the president, the person having the greatest number of votes of the 
electors shall be the vice president. But if there should remain two or 
more who have equal votes, the senate shall choose from them, by ballot 
the vice president.* 

The Congress may determine the time of choosing the electors, and 
the day on which they shall give their votes; which day shall be the same 
throughout the United States. 

No person except a natural born citizen, or a citizen of the United 
States at the time of the adoption of this Constitution, shall be eligible 
to the office of president; neither shall any person be eligible to that 
office who shall not have attained to the age of thirty-five years and been 
fourteen years a resident within the United States. 

In case of the removal of the president from office, or of his death 
resignation, or inability to discharge the powers and duties of the said 
office, the same shall devolve on the vice president; and the Congress 
may be law provide for the case of removal, death, resignation, or in¬ 
ability, both of the president and vice president, declaring what officer 
shall then act as president, and such officer shall act accordingly until 
the disability be removed, or a president shall be elcted. 

The president shall, at stated times, receive for his services a 
compensation which shall neither be increased nor diminished during 
the period for which he shall have been elected; and he shall not receive 
within that period any other emolument from the United States, or any 
of them. 

Before he enter on the execution of his office he shall take the 
following oath or affirmation: 

“I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute the 
office of president of the United States, and will, to the best of my 
ability, preserve, protect and defend the Constitution of the United 
States.” 

Section 2. The president shall be commander-in-chief of the army 
and navy of the United States, and of the militia of the several states, 
when called into the actual service of the United States; he may require 
the opinion, in writing, of the principal officer in each of the executive 
departments, upon any subject relating to the duties of their respective 
offices; and he shall have power to grant reprieves and pardons for 
offenses against the United States, except in cases of impeachment. 


♦The portion in brackets has been superseded by the 12th amendment. 



174 


ELEMENTARY CITIZENSHIP 


He shall have power, by and with the advice and consent of the 
senate, to make treaties, provided two-thirds of the senators present 
concur, and he shall nominate, and by and with the advice and consent 
of the senate shall appoint ambassadors, other public ministers, and 
consuls, judges of the supreme court, and all other officers of the United 
States whose appointments are not herein otherwise provided for, and 
which shall be established by law. But the Congress may, by law, vest 
the appointment of such inferior officers as they think proper in the 
president alone, in the courts of law, or in the heads of departments. 

The president shall have power to fill all vacancies that may hap¬ 
pen during the recess of the senate, by granting commissions which 
shall expire at the end of their next session. 

Section 3. He shall, from time to time, give to the Congress 
information of the state of the Union, and recommend to their considera¬ 
tion such measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient. He may, 
on extraordinary occasions, convene both houses, or either of them; 
and in case of disagreement between them with respect to the time of 
adjournment, he may adjourn them to such time as he shall think proper; 
he shall receive ambassadors and other public ministers. He shall take 
care that the laws be faithfully executed, and shall commission all the 
officers of the United States. 

Section 4. The president, vice president, and all civil officers of 
the United States shall be removed from office on impeachment for and 
conviction of treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors. 

ARTICLE III. 

Section 1. The judicial power of the United States shall be vested 
in one supreme court, and in such inferior courts as the Congress may, 
from time to time, ordain and establish. The judges, both of the supreme 
and inferior courts, shall hold their officers during good behavior, and 
shall, at stated times, receive for their services a compensation which 
shall not be diminished during their continuance in office. 

Section 2. The judicial power shall extend to all cases in law and 
equity, arising under this Constitution, the laws of the United States, 
and treaties made, or which shall be made under their authority; to all 
all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls; to 
all cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction; to controversies to 
which the United States shall be a party; to controversies between two 
or more states, between a state and citizens of another state, between 
citizens of different states, between citizens of the same state claiming 
lands under grants of different states, and between a state or the citizens 
thereof and foreign states, citizens or subjects.* 

In all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and con¬ 
suls, and those in which a state shall be party, the supreme court shall 
have original jurisdiction. In all the other cases before mentioned the 
supreme court shall have appellate jurisdiction, both as to law and 
fact, with such exceptions and under such regulations as the Congress 
shall make. 

The trial of all crimes, except in cases of impeachment, shall be by 
jury, and such trial shall be held in the state where the said crimes shall 
have been committed; but when not committed within any state, the 


*See the 11th amendment. 



CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 175 

trial shall be at such place or places as the Congress may by law have 
directed. 

Section 3. Treason against the United States shall consist only in 
levying war against them, or in adhering to their enemies, giving them 
aid and comfort. No person shall be convicted of treason unless on the 
testimony of two witnesses to the same overt act, or on confession in 
open court. 

The Congress shall have power to declare the punishment of treas¬ 
on, but no attainder of treason shall work corruption of blood, or for¬ 
feiture, except during the life of the person attained. 

ARTICLE IV. 

Section 1. Full faith and credit shall be given in each state to the 
public acts, records and judicial proceedings of every other state. And 
the Congress may by general laws prescribe the manner in which such 
acts, records and proceedings shall be proved, and the effect thereof. 

Section 2. The citizens of each state shall be entitled to all privi¬ 
leges and immunities of citizens in the several states. 

A person charged in any state with treason, felony, or other crime, 
who shall flee from justice and be found in another state, shall, on demand 
of the executive authority of the state from which he fled, be delivered 
up, to be removed to the state having jurisdiction of the crime. 

No person held to service or labor in one state under the laws there¬ 
of, escaping into another, shall, in consequence of any law or regulation 
therein, be discharged from such service or labor, but.shall be delivered 
up on claim of the party to whom such service or labor may be due. 

Section 3. New states may be admitted by the Congress into this 
Union; but no new state shall be formed or erected within the jurisdic¬ 
tion of any other state, not any state be formed by the junction of two 
or more states or parts of states, without the consent of the legislatures 
of the states concerned, as well as of the Congress. 

The Congress shall have power to dispose of and make all needful 
rules and regulations respecting the territory or other property belonging 
to the United States, and nothing in this Constitution shall be so con¬ 
strued as to prejudice any claims of the United States or of any particular 
state. 

Section 4. The United States shall guarantee to every state in 
the Union a republican form of government; and shall protect each of 
them against invasion, and, on application of the legislature, or of the 
executive(when the legislature cannot be convened), against domestic 
violence. 

ARTICLE V 

The Congress, whenever two-thirds of both houses shall deem it 
necessary, shall propose amendments to this Constitution, or, on the 
application of the legislatures of two-thirds of the several states, shall 
call a convention for proposing amendments, which in either case shall 
be valid, to all intents and purposes, as part of this Constitution, when 
ratified by the legislatures of three-fourths of the several states, or by 
conventions in three-fourths thereof, as the one or the other mode of rat¬ 
ification may be proposed by the congress; provided, that no amendment 
which may be made prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and 


176 


ELEMENTARY CITIZENSHIP 


eight shall in any manner affect the first and fourth clauses in the 
ninth section of the first article; and that no state, without its consent, 
shall be deprived of its equal suffrage in the senate. 

ARTICLE VI. 

All debts contracted and engagements entered into, before the 
adoption of this Constitution, shall be as valid against the United States 
under this Constitution, as under the confederation. 

This Constitution, and the laws of the United States which shall be 
made in pursuance thereof, and all treaties made, or which shall be 
made, under the authority of the United States, shall be the supreme 
law of the land, and the judges in every state shall be bound thereby, 
anything in the Constitution or laws of any state to the contrary not¬ 
withstanding. 

The senators and representatives before mentioned, and the mem¬ 
bers of the several state legislatures, and all executive and judicial 
officers, both of the United States and of the several states, shall be 
bound by oath or affirmation to support this Constitution, but no re¬ 
ligious tests shall ever be required as a qualification to any office or 
public trust under the United States. 

ARTICLE VII. 

The ratification of the conventions of nine states shall be sufficient 
for the establishment of this Constitution between the states so ratifying 
the same. 

In addition to, and amendment of, the Constitution of the United Slates of America 
proposed by Congress and ratified by the Legislatures of the several states, pursuant 
to the fifth article of the original Constitution. 

ARTICLE I. 

Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, 
or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of 
speech, or of the press, or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, 
or to petition the government for a redress of grievances. 

ARTICLE II. 

A well regulated militia being necessary to the security of a free 
state, the right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed. 

ARTICLE III. 

No soldier shall, in time of peace, be quartered in any house without 
the consent of the owner, nor in time of war but in a manner to be 
prescribed by law. 


ARTICLE IV. 

The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers 
and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be 
violated, and no warrant shall issue but upon probable cause, supported 
by oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be search¬ 
ed and the persons or things to be seized. 


CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 


177 


ARTICLE V. 

No person shall be held to answer for a capital or otherwise in¬ 
famous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a grand jury, 
except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the militia, when 
in actual service, in time of war and public danger; nor shall any person 
be subject for the same offense to be twice put in jeopardy of life or 
limb; nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to be witness against 
himself; nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property without due process 
of law; nor shall private property be taken for public use without just 
compensation. 

ARTICLE VI. 

In all criminal prosecutions the accused shall enjoy the right to a 
speedy and public trial by an impartial jury of the state and district 
wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have 
been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature 
and cause of the accusation; to be confronted with the witnesses against 
him; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor; 
and to have the assistance of counsel for his defense. 

ARTICLE VII. 

In suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed 
twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no 
fact tried by a jury shall be otherwise re-examined in any court in the 
United States than according to the rules of the common law. 

ARTICLE VIII. 

Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, 
nor cruel and unusual punishment inflicted. 

ARTICLE IX. 

The enumeration in the Constitution of certain rights shall not be 
construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people. 

ARTICLE X. 

The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, 
nor prohibited by it to the states, are reserved to the states, respectively, 
or to the people. 

ARTICLE XI. 

The judicial power of the United States shall not be construed to 
extend to any suit in law or equity, commenced or prosecuted against 
one of the United States by citizens of another state, or by citizens or 
subjects of any foreign state. 

ARTICLE XII. 

The electors shall meet in their respective states, and vote by ballot 
for president and vice president, one of whom at least shall not be an 
inhabitant of the same state with themselves; they shall name in their 
ballots the person voted for as president, and in distinct ballot the person 
voted as vice president; and they shall make distinct lists of all persons 
I 2 


178 


ELEMENTARY CITIZENSHIP 


voted for as president and of all persons voted for as vice president, and 
of the number of votes for each; which lists they shall sign and certify, 
and transmit, sealed, to the seat of the government of the United States, 
directed to the president of the senate; the president of the senate shall, 
in presence of the senate and house of representatives, open all the 
certificates, and the votes shall then be counted; the person having the 
greatest number of votes for president shall be the president; if such 
number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed; and if 
no person have such majority, then from the persons having the highest 
numbers, not exceeding three on the list of those voted for as president, 
the house of representatives shall choose immediately, by ballot, the 
president. But in choosing the president the vote shall be taken by 
states, the representation from each state having one vote; a quorum for 
this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two-thirds of 
the states; and a majority of all the states shall be necessary to a choice. 
And if the house of representatives shall not choose a president whenever 
the right of choice shall devolve upon them, before the fourth day of 
March next following, then the vice president shall act as president, as 
in the case of the death or other constitutional disability of the president. 

The persons having the greatest number of votes as vice president 
shall be the vice president, if such number be a majority of the whole 
number of electors appointed, and if no persons have a majority, then, 
from the two highest numbers on the list, the senate shall choose the 
vice president; a quorum for the purpose shall consist of two-thirds of 
the whole number of senators, and a majority of the whole number shall 
be necessary to a choice. 

But no person constitutionally ineligible to the office of president 
shall be eligible to that of vice president of the United States. 

ARTICLE XIII. 

Section 1. Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a 
punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, 
shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their juris¬ 
diction. 

Section 2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by 
appropriate legislation. 

ARTICLE XIV. 

Section 1. All persons born or naturalized in the United States, 
and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States 
and of the state wherein they reside. No state shall make or enforce 
any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of 
the Unites States; norshallany state deprive any person of life, liberty, 
or property without due process of law, nor deny to any person with¬ 
in its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws. 

Section 2. Representatives shall be apportioned among the several 
states according to their respective numbers, counting the whole num¬ 
ber of persons in each state, excluding Indians not taxed. But when 
the right to vote at any election for the choice of electors for president 
and vice president of the United States, representatives in Congress, the 
executive and judicial officers of a state, or the members of the legislature 
thereof, is denied to any of the male inhabitants of such state, being 


CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 


179 


twenty-one years of age, and citizens of the United States, or in any way 
abridged, except for participation in rebellion or other crime, the basis of 
representation therein shall be reduced in the proportion which the 
number of such male citizens shall bear to the whole number of male 
citizens twenty-one years of age in such state. 

Section 3. No person shall be a senator or representative in 
Congress or elector of president and vice president, or hold any office, 
civil or military, under the United States, or under any state, who, 
having previously taken an oath, as a member of Congress, or as an 
officer of the United States, or as a member of any state legislature, or as 
an executive or judicial officer of any state, to support the Constitution 
of the United States, shall have engaged in insurrection or rebellion 
against the same, or given aid or comfort to the enemies thereof. But 
Congress may by a vote of two-thirds of each house remove such dis¬ 
ability. 

Section 4. The validity of the public debt of the United States, 
authorized by law, including debts incurred for payment of pensions 
and bounties for services in suppressing insurrection or rebellion, shall 
not be questioned. But neither the United States nor any state shall 
assume or pay any debt or obligation incurred in aid of insurrection or 
rebellion against the United States, or any claim for the loss or emancipa¬ 
tion of any salve; but all such debts, obligations and claims shall be held 
illegal and void. 

Section 5. The Congress shall have power to enforce, by appro¬ 
priate legislation, the provisions of this article. 

ARTICLE XV. 

Section 1. The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall 
not be denied or abridged by the United States, or by any state, on 
account of race, color or previous condition of servitude. 

Section 2. The Congress shall have power to enforce this article by 
appropriate legislation. 


ARTICLE XVI. 

The Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes on incomes, 
from whatever source derived, without apportionment among the 
several states, and without regard to any census or enumeration. 

ARTICLE XVII. 

The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two Senators 
from each state, elected by the people thereof, for six years; and each 
Senator shall have one vote. The electors in each state shall have the 
qualifications requiste for electors of the most numerous branch of the 
state legislatures. 

When vacancies happen in the representation of any state in the 
Senate, the executive authority of such state shall issue writs of election 
to fill such vacancies: Provided, that the legislature of any state may 
empower the executive thereof to make temporary appointment until 
the people fill the vacancies by election as the legislature may direct. 

This amendment shall not be so construed as to affect the election 


180 


ELEMENTARY CITIZENSHIP 


or term of any Senator chosen before it becomes valid as part of the 
Constitution. 

ARTICLE XVIII. 

Section 1. After one year from the ratification of this article the 
manufacture, sale, or transportation of intoxicating liquors within, the 
importation thereof into, or the exportation thereof from the United 
States and all territory subject to the jurisdiction thereof for beverage 
purposes is hereby prohibited. 

Section 2. The Congress and the several states shall have con¬ 
current power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation. 

ARTICLE XIX. 

Section 1. The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall 
not be denied or abridged by the United States or any state on account 
of sex. 

Section 2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by 
appropriate legislation. 

Note.—The Constitution was adopted Sept. 17, 1787, by the 
unanimous consent of the states present in the convention appointed in 
pursuance of the resolution of the Congress of the confederation of the 
twenty-first of February, 1787, and was ratified by the conventions of 
the several states, as follows, viz: By convention of Delaware, Dec. 7, 
1787; Pennsylvania, Dec. 12, 1787; New Jersey, Dec. 18, 1787; Georgia, 
Jan. 2, 1788; Connecticut, Jan. 9, 1788; Massachusetts, Feb. 6, 1788; 
Maryland, April 28, 1788; South Carolina, May 23, 1788; New Hamp¬ 
shire, June 21, 1788; Virginia, June 26, 1788; New York, July 26, 1788; 
North Carolina, Nov. 21, 1789; Rhode Island, May 29, 1790. 

The first ten of the amendments were proposed at the first session 
of the First Congress of the United States, Sept. 25, 1789; and were 
finally ratified by the constitutional number of states Dec. 15, 1791. 
The eleventh amendment was proposed at the first session of the Third 
Congress, March 5, 1794, and was declared in a message from the presi¬ 
dent of the United States to both houses of Congress, dated Jan. 8, 1798, 
to have been adopted by the constitutional number of states. The 
twelfth amendment was proposed at the first session of the Eigth 
Congress, Dec. 12, 1803, and was adopted by the constitutional number 
of statos in 1804, according to a public notice thereof by the secretary 
of state, dated Sept. 25, 1804. 

Tho thirteenth amendment was proposed at the second session of 
the Thirty-eighth Congress, Feb. 1, 1865, and was adopted by the con¬ 
stitutional number of states in 1865, according to a public notice thereof 
by the secretary of state, dated Dec. 18, 1865. 

The fourteenth amendment took effect July 28, 1868. 

The fifteenth amendment took effect March 30, 1870. 

The sixteenth amendment took effect February 25, 1913. 

The seventeenth amendment took effect May 31, 1913. 

The eighteenth amendment took effect January 29, 1920. 

The nineteenth amendment took effect August 27, 1920. 


MANUAL FOR TEACHERS 


Purpose of the Manual. This manual has been prepared 
mainly to help teachers adapt and use the materials of this 
book in the civic training of younger children. It stresses the 
work of primary and intermediate grades on account of the 
heavy responsibility which civic training places upon teachers 
in grades where texts are not used. Teachers of older chil¬ 
dren will find that the suggestions, method of precedure, and 
activities for carrying on the work with younger pupils are 
equally applicable and may be used with equal advantage in 
grammar grades. The characteristics of these children have 
been included with those of younger children as a basis for 
such training. 

Use of the Book. In plan and scope the book appeals to 
pupils of the seventh and eighth grades. Their social needs 
and interests will be best served through its use in their hands 
as a text for study of the content and for consideration of the 
topics at the close of each chapter. 

The purpose of the book, however, is to minister as fully 
to the equally important civic needs of younger children 
who are as truly citizens of the community in which they live 
as are older children or adults. To this end the authors have 
sought through a careful selection and treatment of topics to 
include and stress those basic civic facts and truths which 
are alike needed by all children to provide them with civic 
intelligence and to help them establish habits of right action 
and thought in meeting the obligations of every-day life. 

The extent to which these truths are instilled and made to 
become part of the lives of children depends so largely upon 
an understanding of their civic needs and of their character¬ 
istics at the various stages of mental development that 


182 


ELEMENTARY CITIZENSHIP 


teachers need to know these to decide what subject matter 
and methods will best satisfy any special need at a given stage. 

Civic Needs. The world of childhood, real to it, is 
bounded by the home, the school, the street, and the play¬ 
ground. Within the limits of these social groups children 
have many relationships and participate in a wide and 
varied range of activites which involve responsibilities. At 
every turn they are confronted by rights, privileges, and 
duties in connection with their daily life. They learn that they 
must give as well as receive. Parents provide them with 
comforts. They must do their share of home work to con¬ 
tribute to the happiness of others. They expect courteous 
treatment. They owe the same to others. Rights and 
privileges of the playground, the street, and in public build¬ 
ings demand an observance of regulations which protect the 
rights of others. 

As citizens, therefore, children need specific civic training 
which will lead them to appreciate that they have certain 
civic rights and likewise will make them realize that they 
have equally as definite civic duties. The development of 
such a consciousness in every grade and at every age is 
fundamental in citizenship training. 

Characteristics of Childhood. The proper responses of 
children to their obligations will be determined by the 
characteristics of their stage of mental development. That of 
primary and intermediate childhood is characterized by 
activity rather than by thought. Children feel the weight 
of certain duties before they can grasp the reasons for them. 
In meeting these duties, it is their nature to get what they 
can without giving much in return. They have little sense 
of social obligation. They learn right responses through 
doing right rather than through thinking about doing. Their 
actions in any situation and their relations to civic affairs are 
the result of the kind of habits they have formed rather than 
of reasoning. 


MANUAL FOR TEACHERS 


183 


Even during intermediate grades with the development 
of a more mature outlook and a sense of responsibility for 
right conduct toward others and for respect of property, 
reasoning remains weak. While they are gaining in social 
interest, their dominant attitude is still to use any situation 
for their own personal ends. They like to form groups, 
gangs, and clubs; but their relationship to these is based upon 
what the groups or gangs can do for them rather than what 
they can contribute to the groups. In fact this is the stage 
of greatest physical activity and the most important period 
for habit formation through right practice. 

During the last two years of the elementary course reason¬ 
ing powers and social consciousness develop rapidly. Chil¬ 
dren recognize the responsibility of the individual for right 
conduct and co-operation in relation to all the agencies for 
carrying out community service. The study of civic prob¬ 
lems develops understanding, appreciation, and judgment. 
Although doing continues to be important in establishing 
proper conduct, children are beginning to use reasoning as a 
basis for determining their actions in the practice of civic 
duties. 

Briefly stated, the right living of children is dependent 
almost wholly upon the habits of right conduct and of right 
mental attitudes. 

Purpose of Civic Training. The immediate as well as 
remote goal of citizenship training is the inculcating of right 
habits of thought, feeling, and action which will prepare 
children to meet their obligations and duties as good citizens. 

It is only through implanting in the minds of children a 
range of habits as wide and as varied as their activities that 
they may be prepared without fail to make proper response 
to all the common situations and experiences of daily life. 

This goal can be realized within limits. By building up 
a body of specific likes and dislikes of conduct and by making 
civic habits and attitudes as automatic as number combina- 


184 


ELEMENTARY CITIZENSHIP 


tions, it is possible to determine with reasonable certainty 
how children will act under given conditions. 

Program of Civic Training. Habits are initiated through 
knowledge and example. They are fixed through practice. 
That training, therefore, which develops in children the 
power to habitually think, feel, and act with the group must 
include these three factors: 

1. A well-planned program of activities which will afford 
children opportunities to make many contacts and to parti¬ 
cipate in many experiences of their social groups. 

2. Carefully chosen civic material which will contribute 
to an understanding of their relationship to these activities. 

3. Purposeful instruction based on an understanding of 
the nature of children which will make knowledge function 
in their lives as habits or attitudes. 

Responsibility of the Teacher. The teacher, however, is 
the greatest factor in making civic training effective. No 
one else can so well utilize the situations and activities of the 
every-day life of children to set right examples, to present 
and impress civic truths, which will arouse desires, motives, 
and actions and to secure co-operation which will build up a 
consciousness leading to right thinking and acting. 

This training places upon the teacher four distinct obliga¬ 
tions. To help the many teachers who are eager to do the 
work but who are concerned over how to go about it, these 
obligations are stated below, followed bjr discussions and 
suggestions planned to be helpful. These, while general in 
character, have specific reference to making the teaching of 
this text purposeful. 

These, then, are the four things which the teacher of citizen¬ 
ship must achieve: 

1. Plan a program of activities. This must be as broad 

in scope as the activities and social contacts of civic signifi¬ 
cance included in the every-day lives of children, if there is to 
be established a wide range of habits. 


MANUAL FOR TEACHERS 


185 


It is not contemplated that this program will burden the 
teacher with additional teaching periods or with the planning 
of new activities. On the contrary, much of the instruction 
of younger children will be given in an informal manner in 
connection with regular school subjects and the incidents of 
every-day life. Many elements can be taught incidentally 
on the playground. Others, such as courtesy, in connection 
with regular school activities.' Citizenship is a continuous 
process. Children are preparing for it every day of their 
lives. The school as a small community offers wonderful 
opportunities to use the daily occupations and situations of 
children and to direct their regular activities for this training. 

2. Provide civic material. Intelligent citizenship requires 
that knowledge must be the basis for recognition of the rights, 
duties, and obligations of citizens. There is a body of civic 
information which should be the heritage of all children to 
provide them with a knowledge of those things within their 
own experience which they should know. The various 
topics of this book are organized in harmony with the 
curriculum as prepared for the elementary schools of Minne¬ 
sota and planned to provide teachers and pupils with a 
basic body of civic materials rich in content. No text can 
furnish all the information needed for every situation. 
Teachers, therefore, will not be confined to the use of ma¬ 
terials of the text. These, however, should be suggestive of 
other topics teachers may use. The bibliographies contain 
lists of excellent reference books. 

3. Use a good method of procedure which will result in 
habit formation. It is not expected that all the topics in any 
book or course will be equally stressed nor that they will be 
presented in the order given. The teacher must determine 
in large measure what to teach and when to teach it, to meet 
the needs of her school. Her problem in connection with 
presenting any habit-forming civic material is threefold: 

(a) Selecting and adapting civic materials to the needs and 


186 


ELEMENTARY CITIZENSHIP 


understanding of pupils of different ages, situated in vary¬ 
ing environments. 

(b) Presenting the materials so they will develop ideals 
and motives which will lead to action. 

(c) Establishing right civic habits and mental attitudes 
by using children’s activities for repeatedly securing appro¬ 
priate responses. 

Note: This method is discussed in detail in connection 
with the teaching of primary children in the summary of 
the Course of Study in Citizenship which follows. 

4. Be familiar with the aims and content of the Course 
of Study in Citizenship. The Course of Study in Citizenship 
for the elementary grades is included in the manual because 
no teacher can carry on the work of her grade in the spirit of 
the course unless she has a knowledge of it. 

SUMMARY OF COURSE OF STUDY IN CITIZENSHIP 

Organization of the course. The course is organized into three 
cycles to meet the needs of pupils in the following groups: 

1. Primary grades: first, second, and third. 

2. Intermediate grades: fourth, fifth and sixth. 

3. Grammar grades: seventh and eighth. 

Aims of Citizenship Teaching: 

1. To help the child realize that he is a responsible and helpful 
member of several social groups. 

2. To awaken and stimulate motives that will lead to the establish¬ 
ment of habits of order, cleanliness, cheerful co-operation, sympathetic 
service, and obedience to law. 

3. To emphasize the intimate relation between the welfare of the 
individual and the welfare of home and society. 

4. To develop political intelligence and to prepare the young citizen 
for its exercise. 

COURSE FOR PRIMARY GRADES 

Aims: 

1. To teach courtesy and good manners. 

2. To train in wholesome health habits. 

3. To encourage worthy membership in home, school, and com¬ 
munity. 


MANUAL FOR TEACHERS 


187 


Content: 

First grade: The family. 

What parents do for children. How children may show their 
gratitude—helpfulness. Courtesy in the home—in public—good 
manners. Care of furniture, toys, clothing. Sharing of pleasures— 
work of each in service of all. Respect for age. 

Second grade: The home in contact with the community. 

Care of premises. Conduct toward neighbors. Habits to be 
developed: cleanliness, personal, fresh air, wholesome food, sleep, work 
and play, safety first. 

Third grade: The home and the school. 

Habits that apply to each—obedience, cleanliness, punctuality, co¬ 
operation, courtesy, kindness, truthfulness, honesty, courage, fair play. 
Beauty and protection—lawns, trees, wild life, public property. Loyal¬ 
ty—reverence. 

Method of Procedure: 

1. Selecting and Adapting Materials. 

Select and adapt materials which will come within the social 
experience and maturity of children. 

Use stories, memory gems, pictures, and music to arouse their 
social sense. 

Make the basis of work in each year the relationship to home, 
school, street, and playground. While children retain their member¬ 
ship in these groups, their needs and interests vary as their civic con¬ 
tacts are extended. Thus, while activities of home, family, and school 
are the most important in primary grades, the emphasis shifts to include 
community relations in intermediate grades as of equal importance. 
Make civic material stress this widening social circle while continuing 
to serve their needs in other social groups. The course should be 
planned to secure cumulative instruction. It could well be planned, 
therefore, to stress the relationships in each of the primary grades as 
given in Content above. 

2. Presenting Materials to Develop Ideals and Motives That 
Lead to Action. 

One or two periods per week may be given over to the subject. 

Make experience of children the basis of instruction. 

Present materials in connection with some occasion or situation 
with which children are familiar. Make lists of situations of civic 
significance to children in the home, the school, and on the street and 
the playground. 

Illustrate the facts or principles in as many ways as possible. 



188 


ELEMENTARY CITIZENSHIP 


Much of the instruction will be in the form of stories, conversation, 
positive direction, and dramatization. 

Conversation lessons anti informal class discussions should be used 
to draw out the ideas and experiences of children and to present addi¬ 
tional facts which will enlarge their understanding and viewpoint. 

It will frequently be found necessary in presenting facts, to explain 
and demonstrate them and give positive directions or regulations in 
connection with such situations as the care of clothing, first aid, move¬ 
ments of students, and fire drills. 

Simple dramatization is invaluable for concretely illustrating civic 
material through bringing almost every activity into the schoolroom. 
It gives pupils opportunity to reconstruct life and to live over and over 
again situations of the home, the street, and the playground. It gives 
the teacher an opportunity to test to what extent children have grasped 
the idea she has been trying to develop and to test conduct through 
determining the responses of pupils in certain situations. 

At every step the facts taught must establish in the minds of 
children right feelings and a willingness to co-operate through action. 
The attitude of every child should be, “What is my responsibility?” 
Much of this feeling comes as a result of good technique. Present 
materials, therefore, as appealingly as possible, but never present a 
truth as an object lesson which points a moral. A presentation that 
arouses a feeling on the part of children is sufficient. Give but little 
formal instruction in primary grades. 

Do not expect pupils to analyze their feelings or give reasons for 
their acts. Proper responses in meeting situations are sufficient. 

3. Establishing Right Habits of Thought and Action. 

The test of civic training is putting what is taught into practice. 
Plan a few habits for each grade. Concentrate upon these. Plan 
to give a wide range of practice to fix them before adding others. 

Make civic training a program of activities. Right feelings and 
motives are transformed into right habits of action and thought through 
repeated practice in as many actual situations and experiences as 
possible in which children are interested. 

Such situations typical in the experience of children will be found 
in connection with: 

(a) Their activities of the home, the school, the street, and the 
playground which furnish a wide scope for practice in civic virtues 
for the instilling of duties as well as of rights. 

(b) Their many community contacts and relationships, both 
social and business, which should be used to develop co-operation 
and responsibility. 


MANUAL FOR TEACHERS 


189 


(c) Their intimate relationship to those elements which concern 
personal and community welfare (health, recreation, industry, 
reverence, respect, family life, group life) give opportunity to instill 
the ideals and duties of citizenship. 

(d) Correlations with language, hygiene, nature study, and other 
subjects rich in civic possibilities which offer unlimited possibilities 
for instruction will lead to an understanding of citizenship problems. 

COURSE FOR INTERMEDIATE GRADES 

Aims: 

1. To continue training in habits which make for good citizenship. 

2. To develop right attitudes toward society and duly constituted 
authority. 

3. To give opportunity for the exercise of civic duties and responsi¬ 
bilities. 

Content: 

Fourth grade: Public agencies which promote social welfare. 

The post office, rural free delivery. Methods of transportation, 
state roads. Court house, the county. State Capitol, the state of 
Minnesota. Care of public buildings. Attitude toward persons in 
public service. 

Education. The public school, its work its support. Boys’ and 
girls’ club work, the State Fair. 

Fifth grade: Waste, saving, wise expenditure. 

In the home. Food, clothing, furniture, light, fuel, firecrackers, 
gifts. 

On the farm. Upkeep of fences, walks, painting of houses and 
barns. 

In the school. Books, desks, playground apparatus, water, 
supplies. 

Wealth. Care of property, fire protection. 

Health and sanitation. Advantages of good health, keeping the 
neighborhood healthy. 

Recreation. 

Sixth grade: Ways in which local political units promote the 
welfare of all. 

Township. Early settlement, naming the township, officers in the 
township. 

County. Exploration and settlement, naming the county, officers 
of county. 

The city. Its early history, its government. 


190 


ELEMENTARY CITIZENSHIP 


The State of Minnesota. Early history. 

Ways in which social welfare is promoted in these units: Health, 
recreation, beautifying the community. Communication and trans¬ 
portation. Protection of life and property. Relief of poor. Expendi¬ 
ture of public money. Elections. 

How candidates are chosen, election of officers, good citizens’ 
attitude toward elections. 

Method: 

The methods outlined for primary grades will be of value if they are 
adapted to the more mature outlook of intermediate grade pupils and 
used to challenge their thought. Continue to appeal to the immediate 
interests of children. 

During intermediate grades pupils develop a critical attitude and 
an increased regard for right conduct and for respect of property. They 
are curious to know the why and how. Their interest can be challenged 
in analyzing and discussing community situations. Co-operation and 
good will leading to right motives may be secured by taking advantage 
of their desire to suggest lists of attributes pertinent to any situation. 
The teacher may use such lists as a basis for organizing material and for 
classifying their ideas. 

At this stage also they enjoy acting scenes which they have definite¬ 
ly planned to illustrate various civic and social conventions and situa¬ 
tions. Geography and history contribute in a special way to good 
citizenship. One or two periods each week may be devoted in a special 
way to topics and reports related to citizenship. 

COURSE FOR GRAMMAR GRADES 

Aims: 

1. To see the importance and significance of the elements of 
community welfare. 

2. To know the social agencies, governmental and voluntary, that 
exist to secure community welfare. 

3. To recognize civic obligations, present and future, and to 
respond by appropriate action. 

Method: 

The teacher’s first task is to demonstrate existing interests and 
present citizenship. Give the pupil an opportunity to express his 
convictions in word and deed. Right depends not only on information, 
interest, and will, but on good judgment. In these grades pupils should 
be taught to test and organize knowledge regarding community affairs. 
Use should be made of the problem method. 


MANUAL FOR TEACHERS 


191 


Content: 

Seventh and eighth grades: Community civics. 

During these two years it is proposed that the course should cover 
the topics given below. The distribution of the topics during the two 
years will be left to the teacher’s judgment. In time allotment, the 
seventh grade should have one or two periods weekly and the eighth 
grade the equivalent of a half year of work, five recitations per week. 

TOPICS FOR COURSE IN COMMUNITY CIVICS. 

These topics are to be approached from the standpoint of the 
pupil’s immediate interests—the local community. Emphasis in the 
eighth grade should be on local and state agencies with an introduction 
to the more comprehensive agencies, nation, and world. Some of the 
topics may preferably be omitted, others considered briefly and only 
part of them studied in detail. 

1. Health: Pure air, pure water, pure food, exercise, cleanliness. 

2. Protection of life and property: Prevention of accidents, 
prevention of floods, protection against fire. 

3. Recreation: School recess, playgrounds, gymnasium, theaters, 
libraries, summer camps, national parks, clubs, and associations. 

4. Education: Kindergartens, elementary schools, high school, 
Chautauquas, social settlement, civic clubs, debating clubs, theaters, 
newspapers. 

5. Civic beauty: In the home, in the school, in the street; parks, 
architecture, art, city or town planning, preservation of natural beauty, 
smoke abatement, vacant lots, alleys. Clean-up days, care of public 
buildings, mutilation of public property. 

6. Wealth: Co-operation, distribution, simple discussion of wages, 
profits, dividends, interest, rent, a living wage, standards of living. 

7. Communication: Postal service, telegraph, ocean cables, wire¬ 
less, telephone, press, lectures, public discussions. 

8. Transportation: Roads, streets, bridges, natural waterways, 
canals, railroads, electric railways. 

9. Migration: Immigration, naturalization, Americanization. 

10. Charities: a. Causes of poverty, b. Means by which the 
community seeks to make more people self-supporting, c. Relief of 
dependents, d. Responsibility of the citizen. 

11. Corrections: School regulations, local ordinances, state law, 
national laws. 

Agencies for law enforcement: School, reform schools, jails, 
prisons, juvenile court, courts for adults. 


192 


ELEMENTARY CITIZENSHIP 


12. How governmental agencies are conducted: Town meeting. 
Governing powers, local state, national. Separation of powers, legisla¬ 
tive, executive, judicial. Selection of representatives. General 
organization of government, local, state, national. 

13. How governmental agencies are financed: Sources of reven¬ 
ues, methods of taxation. 

14. How voluntary agencies are conducted and financed: Hospi¬ 
tals, social settlement, humane society, community chest. 

SUGGESTIONS FOR USING ACTIVITIES OF CHILDREN 
FOR CITIZENSHIP TRAINING 

The civic training of younger children should center very 
largely in a program of activities. Knowledge is of little 
value if it does not function in practice. It is through 
practice that children acquire self-control, judgment, initia¬ 
tive, and power to use knowledge. Every school, therefore, 
should be a laboratory of citizenship in which pupils are trained 
to do things. To help teachers put the materials of this 
book into practice, suggestions are offered in connection 
with certain of the chapters for using the activities and 
experiences of children in inculcating habits. It must be 
understood that the activities to which attention is directed 
are merely suggestive of the wide range of opportunities for 
using such experiences of younger children. 

Two things should be kept in mind in connection with 
habit formation: first, the necessity of forming habits of mind 
as well as habits of action. Both require practice. Second, 
the necessity of adapting activities to the stage of childhood, 
if right habits are to result. The activity most successful in 
developing a health habit in the first grade would not be 
applicable in the fifth grade. 

An extended discussion of the manner of presenting the 
subject will be set forth under a repetition of the chapter 
titles. This treatment is only suggestive, but it is hoped 
that it will be helpful. Personal resourcefulness will add 
much to its value. 


MANUAL FOR TEACHERS 


193 


CHAPTER I 

COURTESY AND RIGHT CONDUCT 

It is hard for children to pay close attention to rules of 
right conduct. Teachers, therefore, very frequently make 
use of dramatization, because pupils are more interested and 
learn to better advantage when acting. Practically every 
phase of courtesy and right conduct can be so taught. Give 
children opportunity, therefore, to plan simple, spontaneous 
dialogues and to dramatize repeatedly typical forms which 
should be observed in situations of the home, the street, the 
school, and work and play, until their use becomes habitual. 

There follows a very brief dramatization with suggestions 
which will serve as a type lesson for this work. 

PLAY 

Title: Courtesy and Kindness to an Elderly Woman. 

Persons: Elderly woman with heavy basket. 

Boy going in same direction. 

Scene I. 

Scene: Public street or highway. 

Dialogue: Boy tipping his hat, “Good afternoon, Mrs. Jones. 
May I carry your basket?” 

Lady: “Thank you, John, I shall be glad to have you carry the 
basket.” 

Scene II. 

Scene: Home of Mrs. Jones. 

Lady: “Thank you, John, for carrying my basket.” 

Boy, tipping his hat, “You are welcome, Mrs. Jones, good after¬ 
noon.” 

Suggestions: Make dialogue simple. Use no settings. A book or 
eraser will do for the basket. Allow children to plan what they will 
say or do as, “I am John. When I meet Mrs. Jones I will tip my cap 
and say, ‘May I carry your basket, Mrs. Jones?’ ” 

At first the teacher will be obliged to suggest and question as, 
“What will a little boy do when he sees the elderly woman with her 
loaded basket? What will he say when he greets her? What will her 
reply be?” etc. When pupils develop initiative, this help will be 

withdrawn. 

17 


194 


ELEMENTAL.Y CITIZENSHIP 


The following situations in addition to those of the text will offer 
opportunity for dramatizing and practicing common every-day courtes¬ 
ies. They should show many other situations which teachers can use to 
advantage. 

1. Acting of conventional courtesies toward girls, women, elderly 
persons. Examples: Girl drops handkerchief, boy returns it. Boy 
meets and greets girl, elderly woman, elderly man. 

2. Acting of conduct and attitude toward visitors. Examples: 
Visitor comes to home. Child greets visitor, takes wraps, converses. 
Visitor at school—superintendent, principal, parent. 

3. Acting of simple table manners involving use of silverware and 
napkin, position, leaving table. 

The following situations suggest practical opportunities for exempli¬ 
fying good manners and right conduct: 

1. Observances of conduct and courtesy: 

(a) On the school ground: in games, in use of apparatus, in fair 

play. 

(b) In the schoolroom: assuming responsibility for care of desks 
and books, picking up paper, passing material. 

(c) In the home: relation to other members, thoughtfulness toward 
father and mother. 

(d) At parties, picnics, excursions. 

(e) On the street: actions, safety first precautions. 

(f) In the school: rules for the building, use of fountains, basins, 
cloak and toilet rooms. 

2. Remembering playmates who are ill. 

3. Right habits formed: 

(a) Through reports of courtesies and helpful acts which pupils 
could perform or which they have seen others perform. 

(b) Through asking specific questions on conduct as, ‘‘Did you 
quarrel to-day? Play fair? Perform any courteous acts?” 

(e) Through encouraging pupils to draw up rules of conduct for 
situations on the playground, in games, on the street, in public buildings. 

CHAPTER II 

HEALTH AND SANITATION 

A healthy body is one of the essentials of good citizenship. 
The good citizen has both personal and community obliga¬ 
tions to the laws of health. Health is almost entirely a mat- 


MANUAL FOR TEACHERS 


195 


ter of right habits both mental and physical, hence the 
necessity for children to begin forming a few simple health 
habits early. 

The following situations indicate activities which may be 
used in establishing those basic personal and community 
relationships as indicated in the content of the chapter. 
These are suggestive of many others of the wide scope of 
health activities which may be used. 

PERSONAL HYGIENE 

Demonstration by both teacher and pupils of: 

1. Care of hands and nails. Set up definite standards so pupils 
will know when their hands are clean. Proper use of wash basin. 

2. Care of teeth and mouth. Technique of a tooth brush drill. 
Proper use of drinking fountains. 

3. Care of nose and throat. Proper breathing habits. Proper 
use of the handkerchief. Daily display of clean handkerchiefs. 
Covering of nose and mouth and turning of head when coughing or 
sneezing. 

4. Care of clothing. Brushing and hanging in cloak rooms. 

5. Care of eyes. Sitting so light does not harm the eyes. Proper 
distance and angle at which a book should be held. 

6. Posture. Standing, sitting, walking. 

Daily personal inspection by the teacher, very tactfully made, of 
every individual to determine: 

1. Cleanliness of hands, nails, face, teeth, clothing and handker¬ 
chief. 

2. Posture, sitting and standing. 

3. Breathing habits. 

4. Temperature and ventilation. 

Good example of health habits by the teacher. Health habits are 
caught almost as readily as taught. Children are great imitators. 

Play. The play instinct on the schoolground and in health games 
can be used to great advantage. Pupils of every age should be in active 
organized play on the schoolgound at intermissions. 

Health posters and charts which pupils help to make by cutting 
and mounting of pictures of food products studied. Have pupils make 
simple desirable food combinations for various meals. 

Daily discussions, reports and records of hours of sleep, food 
ha' its, observation of simple health chores and of safety first regulations. 


196 


ELEMENTARY CITIZENSHIP 


HOME SANITATION 

A knowledge of the need of pure milk and water supply and help in 
disposal of waste and household rubbish. 

COMMUNITY SANITATION 

School. Keeping of schoolroom, grounds, outbuildings clean. 
Use of individual towel. 

Determining of best temperature for room and keeping of tempera¬ 
ture record. 

Proper use of fountains and individual drinking cups. 

Young children can appreciate what the city and state do for their 
health through a supervision of the milk, water and food supply. 
Such teaching can be used to make them feel their obligation. 

Older pupils of intermediate grades enjoy the relation of good 
health to efficiency. Upon them can be placed a greater responsibility 
for the necessity of observing health regulations. They appreciate 
regulations for first aid and safety first and welcome opportunities for 
practice in emergencies. Clean-up clubs, fly campaigns and many of 
the questions at the close of the chapter may be used to advantage. 

CHAPTER III 

RECREATION AND ENJOYMENT 

One of the important purposes of education is the training 
of people to make a wise use of their leisure time. The worthy 
use of leisure requires the ability to appreciate and enjoy a 
variety of wholesome pursuits—play, art, literature, music, 
science—and to use these both for personal pleasure and 
profit and for the pleasure and profit of others whenever 
possible. Recreational habits, attitudes and appreciations 
are the results of training of earlier days. The boy who 
doesn’t know what do do with his leisure time becomes too 
frequently the corner loafer in young manhood. 

Play is the greatest agency for developing a breadth of 
recreational pursuits. It is basic in the idea of recreation. 
It is the most serious and important function of childhood. 
Through purposeful play children come in contact with a 
wide range of things, learn the idea of co-operation and 
educate themselves in many ways. 


MANUAL FOR TEACHERS 


197 


The school has a great opportunity to develop many 
forms of recreation for the physical, intellectual, social and 
aesthetic needs of childhood in the home, the school, the 
community and on the playground. The following are sug¬ 
gestive activities which may be used in this connection:— 

1. A wide range of well-directed and carefully planned vigorous 
group games of the playground suited to the needs of younger children 
in which pupils learn to co-operate through playing fair, and being 
courteous. 

For intermediate children, organized games such as baseball to de¬ 
velop team work and respect for authority. 

Fully as carefully planned quieter indoor games for the school¬ 
room and the home which require both physical and intellectual skill. 

2. Parties, programs, and pageants in connection with special days 
or events which are carefully planned to give children opportunity to 
participate in the arrangements and designed to give them an apprecia¬ 
tion of new forms of recreation. Upon the teacher rests the responsibility 
for developing these forms upon a high or low level. 

3. Visits to public buildings and places of interest; hiking and 
kodak clubs for older pupils; and picnics, carefully regulated, create a 
love for wholesome pleasure and for nature if the teacher has constantly 
in mind that their purpose is to develop an appreciation of those forms 
of recreation. Mere aimless wandering or picnicking is a waste of time. 

4. Feeding and observation of birds; the construction of bird houses 
and the making and care of window gardens to develop a love of nature. 

5. Well-told interesting stories and a choice of books which chil¬ 
dren really want to read to create a love for reading as a leisure occupa¬ 
tion. 

6. The use of manipulative and constructive skill in creating things 
for personal and school or home use which while laying the foundation 
for one very desirable use of leisure, help to make children realize their 
relationship to others. 

7. Clean-up campaigns in the school yard and home yards to foster 
a love for neat and attractive surroundings. 

8. Discussions. Ideals of civic beauty built up by visiting and 
discussing beauty spots of the community; by discussing of improve¬ 
ment of untidy places and by pictures and descriptions of beautiful 
parks, buildings or cities. Co-operation is developed through discus¬ 
sion of how the people have provided playgrounds for the pleasure of 
the children and of the responsibility of the children to keep such places 
neat and attractive. 


198 


ELEMENTARY CITIZENSHIP 


CHAPTER IV 

CARE OF THE UNFORTUNATE AND DELINQUENT 

Younger children have no interest in or understanding of 
the burden which social problems place upon the community 
and the state. They come in contact, however, with the 
sick, the unfortunates, and the shut-ins, and, while they 
can make but very little in the way of positive contribution, 
teachers should take the opportunity to develop right atti¬ 
tudes toward distress in any form in connection with occasions 
for sending letters and gifts to sick friends, making toys 
and scrap books for crippled children and shut-ins, providing 
dinners for the needy at Thanksgiving time, giving help to 
the infirm or the aged and co-operating with organizations 
for relief of the unfortunates. 

In the intermediate grades with the development of a 
sense of social consciousness and the wider contacts with 
civic affairs and institutions, children come to appreciate to 
some extent that the community has an obligation to its 
unfortunates and delinquents. They are eager for and 
should be given knowledge concerning incidents, phases or 
situations which are manifest to them. In common with 
younger children, however, they are able to understand but 
little of the principles underlying the social problem. A 
discussion of these should be deferred to grammar grades. 

CHAPTER V 

MINNESOTA PUBLIC SCHOOL SYSTEM 

The materials of this chapter, while appealing primarily 
to older pupils, may be used to impress upon younger pupils 
the service which the community is rendering in providing 
education. The teacher will realize the wonderful oppor¬ 
tunities which the school gives her to use the activities of 
children for instilling this knowledge and for developing in 


MANUAL FOR TEACHERS 


199 


return habits and attitudes which will lead to a large ap¬ 
preciation both of education and of civic duties. The school 
through bringing together a group of children furnishes the 
only real opportunities for developing co-operation which 
is basic in citizenship training. 

It is not possible to do more than briefly indicate situa¬ 
tions and fields of activity that center about the life of the 
school and call attention to desirable traits which should be 
developed. Teachers will enlarge upon these as situations 
warrant. In this connection, the need for developing ap¬ 
preciations and attitudes of mind as well as habits of action 
is again stressed. 

Much of the work will be by direction, inspection, con¬ 
versation and class discussion to give children an understand¬ 
ing of what the communtiy is doing for them. Such work 
will develop a feeling of pride in their school and of obliga¬ 
tions for which they must make themselves worthy. 

The following situations on the playground and in the 
school will utilize children’s activities in developing co-opera¬ 
tion: 

1. The life on the playground which offers opportunity to instill 
lessons of respect for the rights of others, for property rights and for self- 
control and right attitudes, through co-operation in group play. Pupils 
are taught to play the game, be game, play fair, be honest, be cheerful, 
use good judgment. 

2. Team work in fire drills and in games, marching in games and 
in line, working at sand tables or in furnishing doll houses, arouse and 
develop a sense of discipline, obedience, promptness, and respect for 
authority as well as appreciation of the rights of others. 

3. Housekeeping and monitorial work such as caring for and 
distributing supplies, keeping the room and blackboards in good order, 
inspecting halls, toilets and playgrounds, taking temperature of school 
at stated times and regulating window ventilation, awakens not only an 
idea of the needs of others but develops a personal sense of responsibility 
on the part of each child for ministering to those needs. Such work 
should be distributed so that all may have the opportunity to participate 
during the year. 

4. Care of desks and books and the economical use of materials 


200 


ELEUEN TA R V Cl TIZEXSHIP 


will lead to a respect for all property as a duty of citizenship, particularly 
if pupils have a knowledge of the cost of such things and are made to 
feel that public property is in part their property. 

5. Exercises on special days or occasions develop a moral sense and 
an appreciation of national ideals. 

The situations and activities of school life will lead to comparisons 
of a similar nature in connection with home life. Teachers should use 
these to tie up home and school. 

Pupils of the intermediate grades have awakened to a sense of 
their relationship to others, to the connection between home and school 
and to a realization that the community is doing something for them. 
This period offers a splendid opportunity to impress the esteem in which 
education is held by the people as evidenced by their willingness to tax 
themselves for the coming generation and to develop an appreciation of 
the advantages of the school and of the necessity for education. 

In addition to activities adapted to their stage of maturity, these 
pupils are interested in discussing: 

1. The purposes, organization, conduct, and support of the school 
system. 

2. The need for, and value of, the various school subjects. 

3. What it costs yearly to educate a child. What part of this 
cost is borne by the parents. How this burden is distributed. 

4. The necessity for and enforcement of regulations and what 
each person, pupil, superintendent, janitor contributes to make the 
school purposeful. 

The topics for discussion at the close of the chapter will also suggest 
fruitful questions adapted to the capacities of students of this age. 

CHAPTER VI 

SECURITY OF LIFE AND PROTECTION OF PROPERTY 

Formal discussions of the foundation or of the legal 
machinery of government have no place in primary or 
intermediate grades. We do not imply, however, that 
children should not have a wide range of facts about the 
government of the community. Even from early childhood 
they are made to feel their responsibilities in their relation¬ 
ship to the laws and regulations under which they and 
everyone around them live. They have definite obligations 
and duties in the home, the school, and the community. 


MANUAL FOR TEACHERS 


201 


There are certain laws which they must obey. They come 
in personal contact with the operation of government through 
their observation of the work of certain officials, the police¬ 
men, the firemen, and the mailmen. In the intermediate 
grades they observe and should learn about many govern¬ 
mental activities which come within their understanding and 
experience; the rights of citizens, how laws are enforced, the 
protection of life and property, specific duties of local 
officers, safety first, and fire precautions. These facts should 
be explained and used to interpret the simple elementary 
phases of government with which they are familiar. 

Training, therefore, can not be begun too early to develop 
in children a right understanding and appreciation of the 
need for law and for observance of safety first precautions, a 
regard for property, and a respect for those in authority, 
particularly parents, teachers, and policemen. 

Many activities can be used to develop right attitudes of mind 
and habits of action. Brief mention of these follows as they have been 
discussed fully in previous chapters. 

1. Discussion of the need for rules in the home, the school and 
neighborhood for the good of all. 

2. Reports and demonstrations of helpful acts and acts of obedi¬ 
ence in the home. 

3. Discussion by the teacher of the work of the policeman to 
develop an understanding of law, an appreciation of his duties, a 
friendly regard for him as an officer who enforces law, and a willingness 
to co-operate with him. Demonstration and dramatization by pupils 
of the many duties of the policeman which they have observed. 

4. Discussion by the class and teacher of the work of the fireman. 
Stories of heroism. 

5. Discussion, demonstration and dramatization of safety first 
precautions to protect the individual and others, such as: 

a. Guarding against accidents on the playground and at home, 
rules for streets and crossings, use of sharp or pointed instruments. 

b. Fire protection and precautions in the home and com¬ 
munity. Training children what to do in case of fire in a building; 
when clothing catches fire. 

4. Clean-up campaigns to arouse civic pride. 

5. Celebration of special days to create national ideals. 


202 


E LUMEN TA R Y Cl TI ZEN SHIP 


CHAPTER VII 

TRANSPORTATION AND COMMUNICATION 

As stated under Chapter VI formal discussions of prin¬ 
ciples have no place in the teaching of primary and inter¬ 
mediate grade pupils. Younger children do, however, come 
in contact with certain phases of the transportation and 
communication problem. They use the streets; they may be 
transported to school; they all meet the postman or rural 
mailman; they may use the telephone; they understand in a 
general way that many of the things they eat and wear 
come from distant places. These factors should be used as 
indicated in previous chapters to develop appreciation and 
understanding. Their activities may be enlisted for develop¬ 
ing attitudes and habits through discussing and dramatizing: 

1. The duties of the postman. 

2. The proper use of the telephone. 

3. Helping to keep the streets clean by throwing rubbish 
or waste in proper receptacles. 

In intermediate grades the facts of the chapter will make 
appeal if properly presented. Children of these grades will 
study the questions of commerce and transportation in con¬ 
nection with geography and history. They are interested in 
the development of the railroads, the telephone and tele¬ 
graph, the wireless. They realize that the community gets 
many things from other places and sends some things to 
other places. They see local transportation by means of 
wagons and trucks. They appreciate good streets and 
have much knowledge about keeping streets and roads 
clean and in repair. They know many things about 
telephones, telegraphs, and radio. All these, however, 
properly come within the range of their experience as facts 
which they will use as a basis for comparison of earlier 
conditions and as apperceptive material for future generaliza¬ 
tions. There should be very little attempt to apply facts or 


MANUAL FOR TEACHERS 


203 


to make generalizations in these grades. The activities of 
intermediate grade children will be much the same as those 
of younger children. They should be adapted, however, 
to the more mature needs of these children. In addition 
there will be visits to grocery, fruit, and drug stores and other 
places, to make note of goods received from other parts of 
the world. Pupils should learn how to write a telegram, 
how to send a money order, and how to use the telephone 
in various situations. 


CHAPTER VIII 

WORK, WEALTH, AND PROSPERITY 

The story of Crusoe is wonderfully interesting and instruc¬ 
tive to children of any grade. In imagination it carries man 
step by step from a lower to a higher civilization through 
a study of various occupations, finally culminating in the 
interdependence of the people and the need of language for 
the purpose of communication as Crusoe and Friday carry 
on the work of the island. 

The story, well told in connection with geography, nature 
or industrial work will develop in pupils an understanding 
and appreciation both of occupations and of moral stamina. 
This story will be particularly helpful if pupils are given 
opportunity to make some of the things which Crusoe used. 

While children do not produce much wealth, they should 
be taught and should be given opportunities to use and spend 
wealth wisely through caring for personal property and 
belongings, materials and books of the school, property of 
the playground, the home and the community and through 
the establishing of standards of value as a basis for expendi¬ 
tures. 

Thrift in its broader sense should be taught and practiced 
in every grade throughout school life in as many and varied 
ways as possible. Pupils should be instructed in the theory 


204 


ELEMEN TA R Y Cl TI ZEN SHIP 


as well as the practice of thrift. They should be taught that 
thrift relates itself; (1) to health, to working efficiency and to 
recreation as well as to the saving of money and materials; 
and, (2) to the community and the nation through conserva¬ 
tion of natural resources and public health. 

The individual as well as the nation loses much through 
illness and through waste of time. Children should be led to 
realize the greater opportunities which come to those who 
conserve their energies, their money, and their time. Thrift 
in this sense means to get the most for one’s money, one’s 
time, and one’s strength. 

They should also be led to see that the thrift problem in 
its various aspects involves, the willingness or ability: to 
earn or produce; to spend wisely; to save or conserve; and to 
invest or accumulate. In this connection, there should be 
clear-cut distinction between thrift and miserliness. The 
thrifty man spends money liberally, but intelligently. The 
miser refuses to spend even for necessities. 

The teaching of thrift requires the building up of an 
understanding and of right mental attitudes as well as the 
providing of opportunity to practice carefulness, economy, 
good management, and judgment or wise decision through: 

1. Conversations and discussion of: the thrift children 
observe in nature,—the squirrel, the bee, the ant; the thrift 
of peoples of various nations; examples of community and of 
national thrift; examples of thrifty characteristics of great 
Americans; the thrift lessons taught by Boy Scout and Camp 
Fire Girl organizations; the practices of the thrift pupils 
have learned; the methods by which money may be earned, 
saved, and spent; the proper use and distribution of time for 
both work and recreation; the value of health; fire prevention 
as an outstanding phase of thrift. 

2. Discussion and practice of: thrift in the home through 
saving of food, clothing, toys, or through such projects as the 
caring for gardens; the raising of chickens, or the canning of 


MANUAL FOR TEACHERS 


205 


fruits and vegetables; thrift in the school; thrift in the saving 
of time through orderly and good methods of work both in the 
home and in the school; thrifty health habits and rules; 
and thrifty habits of definite earning and saving. 

3. The correlation of thrift work with arithmetic, language, 
hygiene, reading, history, geography, and industrial subjects. 

CHAPTER IX 

THE MAKING OF AN AMERICAN CITIZEN 

The purpose of Chapter IX is to review, to summarize, 
and to restate those attributes and elements that are char¬ 
acteristic and should be stressed in the making of good 
American citizenship. 

In addition, new material has been introduced, empha¬ 
sizing the place and work of the church as an institution, 
vital in establishing and influencing ideals, and directing 
attention to the problem of the foreign-born and their 
descendants. 

Schools and teachers should enter whole-heartedly into 
any plans of the churches for the religious instruction of 
children as contemplated under the law recently enacted. 

Children of the foreign-born constitute a large part of 
the public school enrollment. Special care is required to 
ensure that they understand and appreciate American 
manners, customs, ideals and institutions. Nor should 
teachers forget that, in return, the foreign-born or their 
children have much of value to contribute to American life 
and ideals. A sympathetic consideration of the manners 
and customs of their home lands in comparison with those of 
our country and a recognition of their contributions to our 
civilization are basic in the instilling of ideals of Americanism. 

The school offers the best opportunity for instilling and 
putting into practice the ideals of intelligent co-operation 
with the various social groups for the common welfare. If 


206 


ELEMENTARY CITIZENSHIP 


there is to be developed that moral strength on the part of 
the people that will lead to simplicity of living, thrift, respect 
for law, acceptance of individual responsibility, and the 
conserving of the spiritual forces of the nation, then no 
opportunity must be neglected by the schools to do their 
part in giving daily opportunity, from the kindergarten 
through the high school, for developing desirable civic 
qualities. Moral strength, like physical strength, is devel¬ 
oped through practice. 

Suggestions have been given under previous chapters for 
presenting and applying through practice those qualities 
which should go into the making of the good American 
citizen. 


CHAPTER X 

THE MACHINERY OF GOVERNMENT 

For a discussion of the formal teaching of the machinery 
of government in primary and intermediate grades, read 
Chapter VI of the Manual. 

There is no reason, however, why children of intermediate 
grades should not have an intimate knowledge of the facts of 
their own local and county organization and a general 
knowledge of many facts of state and national government. 
They should know: the number of voters; the names and 
duties of township, village or county officials; many of the 
laws relative to the conduct of the school, and why laws are 
made and by whom they are enforced. In brief, they should 
learn, as occasions warrant, any facts about the mechanics of 
government which come within their understanding and 
experience. 









INDEX 


Accidents, 84 
Adjutant General, 150 
Aeroplane, 104 
Agricultural colleges, 73 
Agriculture, 66 
Aid for schools, 62, 68 
Ambassadors, 155 
Amendments, 152, 156, 158 
American Legion, 134 
Amusements, 145 
Arbor Day, 43 
Art, 43 
Assessor, 143 
Attorney, 145, 147, 150 
Auditor, 146, 150 
Automobile, 95, 97, 98, 103 

Babcock, C. M., 99 
Banks, 121, 151 
Beauties— 

of nature, 36 
of art, 43 

Bell, Alexander Graham, 105 
Bird Day, 43 
Birds, 41, 42, 43 
Board— 

of control, 150 
of county commissioners, 146 
of education, state, 150 
of equalization, 143, 146 
of health, 28, 145, 146 
of pardons, 150 
of university regents, 150 
School, 144 
Teachers college, 150 

Books, 44, 64 
Boy Scouts, 34 
Burns, Robert, 134 
Busses, 63, 64, 103 

Camp Fire Girls, 35 
Capital, 116, 122 
Charity, 55 

Charters, 77, 81, 145, 149 
Church, 137 
Citizenship, 127 
City government, 145 
Cleanliness, 12, 26 
Clerk, 143, 145, 147 
Coinage, 154 
Commercial training, 66 


Commissioner of weights and 
measures, 150 

Commission and boards, 83, 146 
Common school district, 70 
Communication, 93 
Community center, 95 
Conduct— 
at school, 15 
at table, 14 
in the home, 13 
Congress— 

Prohibitions, 154 
Powers, 154 
Conservation, 115, 130 
Consolidated schools, 61 
Constable, 143, 145 
Constitution, 147, 153, 166 
Consuls, 155 
Consumption, 114, 116 
Coolidge, President Calvin, 136 
Copyrights, 154 
Coroner, 147 
Corporations, 81 
Council, Village, 145 
Counterfeiting, 154 
County, 146, 152 
County unit, 72 
Courtesy, 9, 16 
Courts— 

Claims, 155 
County, 82 
District, 82, 111 
Justice, 81, 151 
Juvenile, 82 
Police, 81 
Probate, 151 
Supreme, 82, 151 
Credit, 121 
Customs, 88 

Dairies, 25, 28 

Dairy and food commissioner, 
150 

Death rate, 85 

Declaration of Independence, 
162 

Defective pupils, 66 
Delinquent, The, 49 
Democracy, 132, 141 
District Court, 151 
Distribution, 21 
Dress, 13 

Dunn, Robert C., 97 


210 


ELEMENTARY CITIZENSHIP 


Economics, 111, 114, 117, 136 
Elections, 143, 145, 146 
Enjoyment, 34 
Equipment for schools, 64 
Exchange of goods, 117 
Executive Department, 149, 154 
Expenditures in state institu¬ 
tions, 55 

Express companies, 103 
Evening school, 67 
Finances, 151 
Fire marshal, 150 
Firemen, 82 
Fire prevention, 86 
Fish, 41 
Food, 23, 28, 29 
Forests, 40 

Franchise, Elective, 151 
Fundamental rights, 77 
Funds, 69, 151 
Game, 41 

Game and fish commissioner, 
150 

Girl Scouts, 36 

Government, Machinery of, 141 
Basic principles of, 78 
Governor, 150 

Graded elementary schools, 

60, 65 

Grand Army of the Republic, 
134 

Growth of cities, 96 

Hale, Edward Everett, 127 
Health, 20, 28, 45, 131, 145 
Heating, 26, 64 
High schools, 60 
Hill, James J., 99 
Home School for Girls, 54 
Home training, 66 
Homes, 133 

Hospitals for the Insane, 53 
House of Representatives, 

148, 153 
Hygiene, 21 

Impeachment, 152 
Income tax, 88 
Independent school district, 

70, 144 

Industrial commission, 150 
Industrial subjects, 66 
Insurance commissioner, 150 
Interest, 122 
Internal revenue, 88 
Interstate Commerce Commis¬ 
sion, 101 

Irving, Washington, 12 
Judge of Probate, 147 
Judical Department, 155 
Judiciary, 151 


Justice of the Peace, 143, 145, 
151 

Labor, 115, 122 
Lakes, Great, 101 
Land, 115, 122 
Laws, 79, 81, 14 9 
Legislative Department, 148, 
153 

Liberty, 78 

Libraries, 44, 64, 65, 145 

Lieutenant Governor, 150 

Light, 26 

Mail, 95, 104 

Militia, 152, 154 

Milk, 28 

Ministers, 155 

Minnesota Soldier’s Home, 53 

Money, 119 

Moral strength, 134 

National guard, 83 

Naturalization, 128 

Navy, 154 

Neatness, 12 

Nolan, Philip, 127 

Nurses, 29 

Oath of office, 149, 155, 156 
Obligations, 135 
Parks, 38 
Peace officers, 82 
Penitentiary, 54 
Personal appearance, 12 
Play, 34 

Playgrounds, 38, 64 
Policemen, 82 
Poorhouse, 56 

Population of state institu¬ 
tions, 55 

of United States, 96, 130 
Postage, 104 
Postal service, 103, 154 
Poverty, 56 
President, 154 
Probate Court, 151 
Production, 114 
Prosperity, 111 
Public examiner, 150 
Public school system, 59, 132 

Radio, 95, 107 
Railroads, 99 

Ramsey, Alexander, 94, 141 
Ratification of constitution, 
157 

Records, 80 
Recreation, 34 
Red Cross, 30, 49 
Register of Deeds, 146 
Rent, 122 

Resources, 115, 122, 123, 130, 

131 


INDEX 


21 1 


Respect for the flag - , 16 
for law, 136 

Responsibility of pupils, 73 
of citizens, 135 
Rights, 135, 147 
Roads. 97, 98, 153 
Roosevelt, Theodore, 131, 136 
131 

Safety First, 83 
Sanitation, 20, 24, 26, 29 
School board, 71, 144 
School buildings, 64, 65 
School for Feeble Minded, 53 
School for the Blind, 53 
School for the Deaf, 53 
School grounds, 64 
School sites, 26 
Seal of the State, 141, 150 
Secretary of State, 150 
Security of person, 78 
Senate, 148, 153 
Sewage, 27 
Sheriff, 146 
Shirkers, 50 
Social welfare, 56 
Soldiers and sailors, 134 
Special school district, 72 
Stables, 25 
State, 147 
State aid, 62, 68 
State Board of Education, 150 
State forester, 150 
State Hospital for Indigent, 
Crippled, and Deformed Chil¬ 
dren, 52 

State institutions, 52, 53, 54 
State institutions for crimi¬ 
nals, 54 

State prison, 54 
State public schools, 52 
State Teachers Colleges, 73 
State Training School, 54 
Street cars, 103 
Streets, 145 


Superintendent of schools, 147 
of banks, 150 
Supervisors, 143 
Supreme Court, 151 
Surveyor, 147 

Taxes, 66, 80, 88, 90, 97, 98, 122, 
145, 149, 154 
Gross earnings, 90 
■ Property, 80 

Teachers College Board, 150 
Teachers Colleges, 73 
Telegraph, 103, 106 
Telephone, 103, 105, 107 
Textbooks, 144 
Thrift, 116, 136 
Toilets, 27, 64 
Towns, Powers of, 143 
Township, 142, 152 
Transportation, 93, 99, 103 
Transportation of pupils, 63, 96 
Treason, 155 
Treaties, 155, 156 
Treasurer, 143, 145, 146, 150 
Trial by jury, 156 
Unfortunate, The, 49 
Ungraded elementary schools, 
60 

University of Minnesota, 73 

Valuation, 65 

Value, 118 

Ventilating, 26, 64 

Village, 145 

Wages, 122 

War, 116 

Washington, George, 11 
Water, 25, 26, 27, 64 
Wealth, 111, 114, 123 
Weather reports, 107 
Weights and measures, 154 
Wild life, 41, 115 
Wireless, 107 
Work, 34, 111 
Workers, 50 



























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